“…Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) can uniquely visualize the dynamics of nanoparticle self-assembly in a liquid medium in real-time with nanometer scale resolution. Numerous LP-TEM studies have investigated the self-assembly of nanoparticles functionalized with small molecules, polymers, and DNA capping ligands. − Interparticle interactions during self-assembly, including steric forces, electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic/hydrophilic forces, are mediated by the specific physicochemical properties ( e.g ., molecular weight, ligand density, functional groups, protonation/deprotonation) of organic surface ligands on nanoparticles. , It is well known that the TEM beam strongly interacts with organic molecules through radiolysis reactions. , However, despite the importance of organic capping ligands in self-assembly and their susceptibility to electron beam damage, few LP-TEM studies have focused on electron beam damage mechanisms of organic capping ligands. To correctly interpret self-assembly dynamics and mechanisms observed with LP-TEM, it is imperative to understand how the electron beam modifies nanoparticle surface ligands and to establish limits on the electron doses and dose rates used to image nanoparticle self-assembly.…”