Limb morphology, bipedal gait, and the energetics of hominid locomotion

Steudel, Karen

doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199602)99:2<345::aid-ajpa9>3.0.co;2-x

Cited by 52 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 62 publications

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“…Clearly, human limbs do not have this type of adaptation. It was argued that humans are not particularly energetically economic walkers or runners (Fedak et al, 1974;Taylor et al, 1982;Alexander, 1991;Steudel, 1996;Steudel-Numbers, 2001), and therefore might not ''qualify'' as cursorial animals, especially when running (Steudel-Numbers, 2003;contra Bramble and Lieberman, 2004). The human strategy of shortening distal limb segments in order to maintain low bending strains results in overall shorter limbs, and suggests that humans do not have a limb design that is typical of cursorial animals.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…While some argued that human bipedality is not energetically efficient (Fedak et al, 1974;Taylor et al, 1982;Alexander, 1991;Steudel, 1996;Steudel-Numbers, 2001), others proposed that it is energetically economical (Steudel-Numbers, 2003), especially when compared to other primates (Rodman and McHenry, 1980;Robertson, 1995, 1997;Steudel-Numbers, 2003). Humans are sometimes referred to as bipedal, cursorial animals, in part due to their great endurance (Hildebrand and Goslow, 2001;Bramble and Lieberman, 2004).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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Modeling and remodeling responses to normal loading in the human lower limb

Drapeau¹,

Streeter²

2005

American J Phys Anthropol

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Limb bones are designed to be strong enough to support the body and yet be energetically conservative during locomotion. Bones of the distal segment, which are relatively costly to move, are often more slender than bones of the proximal segments, even though they must sustain proportionally greater loads. As a result, they are expected to experience a higher incidence of microdamage. With this constraint in mind, Lieberman and Crompton (1998 Principles of Animal Design, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 78-86) proposed that bones response to strain varies along the proximo-distal axis of the limb. In order to avoid fatigue fractures due to the accumulation of microdamage, the distal segment, in comparison to the proximal segment, will have an increase in remodeling events to replace damaged bone. In this paper, we test the hypothesis of Lieberman and Crompton (1998) with respect to the human lower limb. With a sample of adult individuals, we compare tibiae and femora for mid-diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry and Haversian remodeling differences. Our results indicate that the human limb is not designed like that of quadrupedal cursorial animals. The tibia is not less resistant in bending and torsion, and does not remodel more than the femur. Our findings fail to support the hypothesis of Lieberman and Crompton (1998) and suggest, instead, that the human lower limb is not designed like a cursorial animal limb. In addition, our results support previous observations that remodeling is not uniform within the cross section of a bone, probably a reflection of different loading histories within the different regions of the cross section.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Modeling and remodeling responses to normal loading in the human lower limb

Drapeau¹,

Streeter²

2005

American J Phys Anthropol

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“…They also have very small PCSAs but can increase torque production by using a large MA. This has the added benefit of decreasing the muscle mass and, hence, the rotational inertia of the thigh, saving metabolic energy during locomotion (Steudel, 1996). The short fascicles of RFe and relatively large MA lead to unrealistically high strains to obtain the range of hip flexion seen in vivo, as predicted by the model (interspecific mean, 0.86).…”

Section: Hip Flexionmentioning

confidence: 92%

“…2-8· smaller MAs than other muscles crossing the hip, but possess 4-10· as much PCSA as other muscles crossing the hip (Channon et al 2009) and are therefore likely to maintain equal or greater moment production capabilities than other hip muscles. Having muscles with a small MA and a large PCSA probably reduces thigh mass, and hence thigh inertia, contributing to efficient locomotion (Witte et al 1991;Crompton et al 1996;Steudel, 1996;Schoonaert et al 2007). This particular muscle architecture enables the production of large amounts of joint power without high thigh muscle mass (as would be the case for long-fascicled, voluminous muscles).…”

Section: Hip Extensionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The advantage of using the glutei instead of the hamstrings as powerful hip extensors is twofold. First, high muscle powers require large muscle volume and locating that vol-ume on the femur shaft would increase the limb inertia and hence the metabolic costs of other (leg swinging) activities such as walking (Witte et al 1991;Crompton et al 1996;Steudel, 1996;Schoonaert et al 2007). Second, the hamstrings are biarticular (see below for how secondary MA might affect estimates of fascicle strain) and, during powerful movements such as jumping, extending the hip might (depending on both joint positions) require muscular effort (and hence metabolic energy) from an antagonist (here the knee extensors) to prevent energy wastage through knee flexion (the hamstrings' other role).…”

Section: Hip Extensionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Muscle moment arms of the gibbon hind limb: implications for hylobatid locomotion

et al. 2010

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Muscles facilitate skeletal movement via the production of a torque or moment about a joint. The magnitude of the moment produced depends on both the force of muscular contraction and the size of the moment arm used to rotate the joint. Hence, larger muscle moment arms generate larger joint torques and forces at the point of application. The moment arms of a number of gibbon hind limb muscles were measured on four cadaveric specimens (one Hylobates lar, one H. moloch and two H. syndactylus). The tendon travel technique was used, utilizing an electro-goniometer and a linear voltage displacement transducer. The data were analysed using a technique based on a differentiated cubic spline and normalized to remove the effect of body size. The data demonstrated a functional differentiation between voluminous muscles with short fascicles having small muscle moment arms and muscles with longer fascicles and comparatively smaller physiological cross-sectional area having longer muscle moment arms. The functional implications of these particular configurations were simulated using a simple geometric fascicle strain model that predicts that the rectus femoris and gastrocnemius muscles are more likely to act primarily at their distal joints (knee and ankle, respectively) because they have short fascicles. The data also show that the main hip and knee extensors maintain a very small moment arm throughout the range of joint angles seen in the locomotion of gibbons, which (coupled to voluminous, shortfascicled muscles) might help facilitate rapid joint rotation during powerful movements.

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Maximum walking speed and lower limb length in hominids

Webb

1996

Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.

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In 1984, Helene (Am.J. Physics 52:656) and Alexander (Am. Scientist 72:348-354) presented equations which purported to explain how lower limb length limited maximum walking speed in humans. The equations were based on a simplified model of human walking in which the center of mass (CoM) "vaults" over the supporting leg. Increasing walking speed by increasing stride frequency or stride length would increase the upward acceleration of the CoM in the first half of stance phase, to the point that it would be greater than the downward pull of gravity, and the individual would become airborne. This constitutes running by most definitions. While these models ignored various mechanical factors, such as knee flexion during midstance, that reduce the vertical movement of the CoM, the general idea is plausible inasmuch as the CoM of the body does oscillate vertically with each step. One hypothesis tested here is whether it is indeed the interaction between the pull of gravity and the individual's own upward acceleration that determines at what speed (or cadence) he changes from walking to running. Another hypothesis considered is that increased lower limb length (L) was selected for in early hominids, because of the locomotor advantages of longer lower limbs. Results indicate, however, that while L was clearly related to maximum possible walking speed, it was not an important factor in determining maximum "comfortable" walking speed. These and other results from the recent literature suggest that increased lower limb length provided no selective advantage in locomotion, and other explanations should be sought.

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Limb morphology, bipedal gait, and the energetics of hominid locomotion

Cited by 52 publications

References 62 publications

Modeling and remodeling responses to normal loading in the human lower limb

Modeling and remodeling responses to normal loading in the human lower limb

Muscle moment arms of the gibbon hind limb: implications for hylobatid locomotion

Maximum walking speed and lower limb length in hominids

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