Levels of processing: The evolution of a framework.

Abstract

Although the levels of processing framework have evolved over its nearly 40 years of existence, the essence of the idea has not changed from the original. The original article published in 1972 suggests that in the encoding stage of a stimulus, there is a series of processing hierarchies ranging from the shallowest level (perceptual processing-the subject initially perceives the physical and sensory characteristics of the stimulus) to the deepest level (semantic processing-related to pattern recognition and extraction of meaning). The depth processing is associated with high levels of retention and long-term memory traces. After extensive research and criticism, the authors added several concepts that aided in a better understanding of levels of processing framework and the items that subjects can recall such as transfer-appropriate processing and robust encoding. However, there are still some gaps in this framework that call for new scientific investigations, ranging from experimental paradigms with lists of words with healthy or pathological conditions subject to neuroimaging studies to confirm, refute or improve the framework. The aim of this article is to review the publications (articles and book chapters) dating from the original article to the present day to better understand the mnemonic process in terms of levels of processing and to highlight some of its contributions.

“70.6 Billion World Citizens”: Investigating the difficulty of interpreting numbers

“…Numerical transcoding is not necessarily semantically mediated, which implies that it is possible to write down a number and/or read it aloud without thinking about its meaning (Dehaene, 2001). Further cognitive processing is required to actually comprehend the number that was heard (Ekuni, Vaz, & Bueno, 2011).…”

The Role of Positive Affect in Enhancing Extinction Learning and Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders

“…The effect of positive affect on encoding stems partly from the levels of processing framework of memory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972;Craik, 2002). The levels of processing framework is one of the most robust, most frequently cited, and most influential theories in cognitive psychology, having undergone more than 40 years of experimentation and development (Ekuni, Vaz, & Bueno, 2011;Richardson-Klavehn, Gardiner, & Ramponi, 2002). This theory posits that various levels of depth exist in the encoding and storage of information in memory.…”

Human Memory and Recall: Bridging the Gap between Encoding and Recall of Information

“…Nonetheless, examining the impact of stress on the long-term memory retention is important because it reflects how stress often operates in the real world. Stress can occur prior to or during encoding of an event that one may need to remember sometime later such as in the case of eyewitness testimony [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15].…”