Levels and socioeconomic correlates of nonmarital fertility in Ghana

Abstract

Childbirth outside marriage has several negative implications for the well-being of children, women, and families globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, however, the phenomenon appears to be under-studied. In this study, we examine the levels and socioeconomic correlates of nonmarital fertility in Ghana. Using pooled data from the 2003, 2008, and the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys, logistic regression models were used in determining significantly predictive factors of nonmarital fertility. The results show that nonmarital fertility levels have been on the rise over time without any sign of reduction (24.0%, 33.0%, and 40.0% for 2003, 2008, and 2014, respectively). Some socioeconomic characteristics are linked to nonmarital fertility levels with women without formal education, women from poor households, and self-employed women having significantly higher nonmarital fertility risks. Also, older unmarried women, women who have an early sexual debut, cohabiters, women with unmet need for family planning are all associated with considerably higher risks of nonmarital childbearing. A few significant regional disparities also exist, with the Central Region having higher whereas the Upper West Region has lower risks of nonmarital fertility compared to the Greater Accra Region. Childbirth outside marriage is a social concern among women in Ghana. The findings have possible implications for bridging socioeconomic disparities among unmarried women.

Analysis of Non-Marital Fertility in Nigeria and Implications for Intervention and Future Research

“…Education is also one of the identified correlates of nonmarital fertility, and these studies submitted that the higher the level of education of a woman, the less likely she is to have a child outside of marriage. Specifically, a Namibian study reported that education has an inverse relationship with non-marital fertility (Upchurch et al 2002;Perelli-Harris and Gerber 2011;Pazvakawambwa et al 2014;Nyarko and Potter 2021), but other evidence, also from Namibia, shows that the relationship is not strong, although the focus of this other study was among teenagers (Chimere-Dan 1997). Further evidence also shows that the place of residence (rural/urban) is a correlate of non-marital fertility; it has been submitted that non-marital fertility is more likely to occur among unmarried women residing in rural areas compared to women in urban areas (Nyarko and Potter 2021).…”

“…Specifically, a Namibian study reported that education has an inverse relationship with non-marital fertility (Upchurch et al 2002;Perelli-Harris and Gerber 2011;Pazvakawambwa et al 2014;Nyarko and Potter 2021), but other evidence, also from Namibia, shows that the relationship is not strong, although the focus of this other study was among teenagers (Chimere-Dan 1997). Further evidence also shows that the place of residence (rural/urban) is a correlate of non-marital fertility; it has been submitted that non-marital fertility is more likely to occur among unmarried women residing in rural areas compared to women in urban areas (Nyarko and Potter 2021). Scholarly evidence on religion and non-marital fertility has been reported in a study of the spatial variations in non-marital fertility, and it has been reported that in places with significant religious traditions, women show higher propensities to have low levels of non-marital fertility (Klüsener 2015).…”

“…A review of literature on the phenomenon of non-marital fertility in sub-Saharan Africa shows that many of the studies have a consensus on age as an important correlate of non-marital fertility, with older unmarried women having a higher likelihood of having non-marital births compared to younger women (Pazvakawambwa et al 2014;Maluleke 2017;Nyarko and Potter 2021). Education is also one of the identified correlates of nonmarital fertility, and these studies submitted that the higher the level of education of a woman, the less likely she is to have a child outside of marriage.…”

“…Furthermore, household wealth index has been identified as one of the key correlates of non-marital fertility; studies have submitted that richer individuals are statistically less likely to have non-marital fertility compared to poor unmarried women, and the explanation for this is that that poorer women are bedeviled by unmet need for contraceptives that can help them avoid unintended pregnancies, whereas richer women are not to be faced with such issues and can easily avoid non-marital births, except if they decide to go for it by choice (Maluleke 2017;Nyarko and Potter 2021). Studies have also established the predictive power of employment status on non-marital fertility; it has been stated that employed unmarried women are more likely to experience these unconventional types of childbirth-non-marital fertility (Guzzo 2014;Pazvakawambwa et al 2014;Kim et al 2017;Nyarko and Potter 2021). Two notable studies of non-marital fertility in sub-Saharan Africa have both reported a significant relationship between marital status and non-martial fertility, and non-martial births are higher and more likely to happen amongst cohabiting women compared to single or never-married women.…”

“…This transition in fertility patterns is impacted by numerous factors, but a notable one is the reduction in the proportion of married people, since fertility and marriage have always been inextricably linked, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Bongaarts 1987;Palamuleni and Makiwane 2007;Majumder and Ram 2015;Alaba et al 2017). In the past, marriage was considered important for the onset of fertility, but recent evidence shows otherwise, as marriage is rapidly losing its grip on fertility due to the rising number of births occurring outside of formal marital unions, as either teenage births, premarital fertility, or non-marital/out-of-wedlock fertility-all emerging fertility patterns (Chimere-Dan 1997; Heuveline et al 2003;Perelli-Harris and Gerber 2011;Madhavan et al 2013;Palamuleni and Adebowale 2014;Maluleke 2017;Nyarko and Potter 2021). Some of the factors that have contributed to marriage losing its grip on fertility include the rising age at first marriage, reduction in the proportion of the married population, early sexual debut, contraception revolution, as well as increasing women empowerment and emancipation, resulting in a shift of births to single women (Heuveline et al 2003;Lesthaeghe 2010).…”