Lessons from Białowieża Forest on the history of protection and the world's first reintroduction of a large carnivore

Abstract

Understanding how the relationships between large carnivores and humans have evolved and have been managed through centuries can provide relevant insights for wildlife conservation. The management history of many large carnivores has followed a similar pattern, from game reserved for nobility, to persecuted pests, to conservation targets. We reconstructed the history of brown bear (Ursus arctos) management in Białowieża Forest (Poland and Belarus) based on a detailed survey of historical literature and Russian archives. From the end of the Middle Ages to the end of 18th century, the brown bear was considered "animalia superiora" (i.e., game exclusively reserved for nobility and protected by law). Bears, also a source of public entertainment, were not regarded as a threat. Effective measures to prevent damages to traditional forest beekeeping were already in practice. In the beginning of 19th century, new game-management approaches allowed most forest officials to hunt bears, which became the primary target of hunters due to their valuable pelt. This, together with an effective anticarnivore policy enhanced by bounties, led to bear extirpation in 1879. Different approaches to scientific game management appeared (planned extermination of predators and hunting levels that would maintain stable populations), as did the first initiatives to protect bears from cruel treatment in captivity. Bear reintroduction in Białowieża Forest began in 1937 and represented the world's first reintroduction of a large carnivore motivated by conservation goals. The outbreak of World War II spoiled what might have been a successful project; reproduction in the wild was documented for 8 years and bear presence for 13. Soft release of cubs born in captivity inside the forest but freely roaming with minimal human contact proved successful. Release of captive human-habituated bears, feeding of these bears, and a lack of involvement of local communities were weaknesses of the project. Large carnivores are key components of ecosystem-function restoration, and site-specific histories provide important lessons in how to preserve them for the future.

Historical data on European bison management in Białowieża Primeval Forest can contribute to a better contemporary conservation of the species

“…Throughout the most of the nineteenth century, all carnivores were persecuted in BPF, which had the greatest impact on large predators i.e. wolf Canis lupus, lynx Lynx lynx and especially brown bear Ursus arctos which was exterminated around 1878 (Genko 1902(Genko -1903Karcov 1903;Jędrzejewska et al 1997;Jędrzejewska and Jędrzejewski 1998;Samojlik et al 2018).…”

“…The topics of official hunts, capturing live animals for the zoos and hunting reserves (Samojlik et al 2017;Fedotova et al 2018) and poaching are on the opposite side of the scale from the legal point of view, yet they result in the same: removal of bison from the forest. Since the Tsar's first hunt in 1860, several actions were taken to enable more frequent royal hunts, including creation of a permanent animal enclosure, prohibition of all other hunts, introduction of fallow deer and reintroduction of red deer.…”

“…In 1821, hunts were prohibited as harmful for European bison, but in later in the 1820s they were renewed each time a bear, wolf or lynx were spotted (RSHA 1827(RSHA -1833. After a few sightings of European bison being attacked by bears, they became the main target of ant-predator policy (Karcov 1903, RSHA 1840-1849, resulting in their eventual eradication (Samojlik et al 2018). At the same time, the annual depredation of bison by wolves was estimated as not higher than eight animals (RSHA 1840(RSHA -1849; nevertheless, the eradication policy continued with the addition of wolf and lynx poisoning using strychnine (RSHA 1839(RSHA -1842.…”

Identifying the risk regions of house break‐ins caused by Tibetan brown bears (Ursus arctos pruinosus) in the Sanjiangyuan region, China

“…Anthropogenic influences have affected every ecosystem on earth, with demands and pressures on wildlife resources steadily increasing (Samojlik et al, 2018;Strum, 2010). Over-exploitation of natural resources reduces, fragments, and isolates wildlife habitat across landscapes, and threatens numerous endangered animal species (Fahrig, 2003;Rushton, Wood, Lurz, & Koprowski, 2006).…”

“…Over-exploitation of natural resources reduces, fragments, and isolates wildlife habitat across landscapes, and threatens numerous endangered animal species (Fahrig, 2003;Rushton, Wood, Lurz, & Koprowski, 2006). As a result, these species must capitalize on novel human resources to survive, causing conflict between humans and wildlife (Samojlik et al, 2018;Soofi, Qashqaei, Aryal, & Coogan, 2018;Strum, 2010). These instances are exacerbated when guided conservation policies facilitate wildlife population recovery, but existing habitat is unable to support these increased numbers, increasing human-wildlife conflict (HWC; Messmer, 2000).…”