Leaving it to the schools: ctizenship, diversity and human rights education in the Netherlands

Abstract

Background: The Netherlands traditionally has a strong civil society. This has had an impact on the education system through the relatively high degree of autonomy for schools on moral and didactical choices as well as on the curriculum. Such freedom provides ample room for citizenship to develop at a local level. The large degree of curricular autonomy allows schools to shape education according to their own vision and values in partnership with those in civil society. Purpose: This article explores how citizenship education, cultural diversity and human rights education are implemented within such a context. The main aim is to analyse how societal and political ideals are laid down at the policy level (intended curriculum), how they are implemented at the school level (implemented curriculum), and how they impact on student learning (attained curriculum). Sources of evidence: Formal educational policy documents are analysed to gain insight into the intended curriculum. Insights in the implemented and attained curriculum are gathered through analysis of research studies into classroom practice. Main argument: The article argues that although citizenship education, cultural diversity and human rights education are prominent themes in political and societal debates and expectations of schools' contribution to these themes are high, the intentions are formalised only briefly in the intended curriculum. The freedom of education is mentioned as the main reason for the lack of policy commitment. The article argues, however, that local empowerment cannot do without school leadership to develop a school-specific vision and approach, as well as a coherent long-term vision on the way forward at the macro level.Conclusions: This curriculum analysis shows that cross-curricular socialisation themes do not play a prominent role in curriculum policy and that implementation in classroom practice is varied, but generally limited. With ambiguity in educational policy and limited implementation support, it is a complex challenge for schools to make strategic choices in interaction with civil society and to set their own social agenda. Given the current political and societal context, with its focus on freedom of education, it is necessary, but not realistic, to expect more detailed curricular regulations on these curriculum domains. Moreover, the current emphasis on basic skills in literacy and numeracy also limits the room for these societal issues, in both curriculum policy and practice. The article concludes that schools need more support to make autonomous choices as well as more clarity on what is expected from them. Also more insight is needed about feasible and coherent approaches to incorporate citizenship education in a core curriculum that has a strong emphasis on the basic skills.

Educational outcomes and functioning of bi-ethnic Dutch children in school

“…We will focus on the cognitive outcomes and social-emotional functioning of pupils. In addition, we will focus on citizenship competences because it is an important educational goal (Bron and Thijs 2011) and because research on this topic is scarce. Shih and Sanchez (2005) reviewed differences in developmental outcomes among bi-ethnic, mono-ethnic minority and mono-ethnic majority individuals living in the US.…”

Studying Global Human Rights Education. Theoretical and Empirical Approaches

“…4 However, at the same time evidence can be found revealing that the level of national commitment decreases as policy ideas are incorporated into national curricula (Banks 2001;Bron, Thijs 2011;Huang 2006;Shekarey et. al.…”

“…6 Evidence is found of teachers facing pressure to spend time developing student competencies in examination subjects, particularly Math, Reading and Science, at the expense of time that could be spent on HRE. These studies also indicate that despite commitment at the policy level, there is a lack of government direction and support for HRE (Bron, Thijs 2011;Froese-Germain et al 2013;Huang 2006;Nabeshima et al 2002). Some of these studies indicate that there is often a lack of teacher training in HRE leading to lack of knowledge and commitment on the part of teachers (Burridge et al 2013;Cassidy et al 2014;Nabeshima et al 2002;Prasad 2000).…”

“…The importance of the role of teachers and their attitudes towards the curriculum policy is often cited as a reason for limited success in the implementation of HRE (Bajaj 2011b;Bron, Thijs 2011;Froese-Germain et al 2013;Gerber 2008;Kang 2007;Lapayese 2005;Leung, Lo 2012;Messina, Jacott 2013;Rinchin 2000;Zembylas et al 2014). 6 Evidence is found of teachers facing pressure to spend time developing student competencies in examination subjects, particularly Math, Reading and Science, at the expense of time that could be spent on HRE.…”

“…In some cases human rights violations were still evident in the school institutions, contributing to the weakening of the effectiveness of HRE implementation (Bron, Thijs 2011;Rinchin 2000). In the case of Nabeshima et al (2002) it was discovered that commitment to HRE was higher in areas where the Buraka liberation movement was influential, suggesting that HRE was valued more in parts of Japan where problems with discrimination prevailed.…”