“…These prescriptions have assumed that concepts represent a primary learning outcome, without necessarily considering how the concepts are used. Learning hierarchies (Gagné, 1968(Gagné, , 1973Gagné & Briggs, 1979), which conceive of concepts as building blocks of higher-order skills, are an exception. Additionally, many instructional design researchers have conducted a significant body of research on the effects of different instructional design variables on the acquisition of concepts (Canelos, Taylor, & Altschuld, 1982;Carrier, Davidson, & Williams, 1985;Hicken, Sullivan, & Klein, 1992;Jonassen, 1978Jonassen, , 1986Newby, Ertmer, & Stepich, 1995;Tennyson, 1978;Tennyson, & Buttrey, 1980;Tessmer, & Driscoll, 1986), without necessarily considering how the concepts will be used.…”