Lead Sources, Toxicity, and Human Risk in Children of Developing Countries: A Mini–Review

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is one of the oldest metals known to man and has been useful since the ancient era. However, it is known today that Pb is severely toxic to humans. Briefly reviewing the sources (both natural and anthropogenic) of Pb in the environment, this mini-review discusses how Pb continues to put the health of humans, especially children in developing countries, at risk. The toxicological processes through which Pb acts as a poison in the human body, primarily affecting the nervous system, are reviewed briefly and followed by a discussion on how the public is exposed to Pb and several case studies on Pb poisoning in children from developing countries. The case studies are on children from different regions of the developing world, and they show how highly children from developing countries are at risk of Pb poisoning. Further, the reviewed cases may be relevant to litigation as environmental toxic torts. Therefore, public awareness and introducing environmental preventive regulations concerning exposure to Pb need to continue globally.

Lead and other heavy metals in soils impacted by exterior legacy paint in residential areas of south west England

“…Because of the well-documented acute and chronic toxicities of Pb, and in particular its neuro-toxicological impacts on young children, contemporary and legacy sources of the metal have come under intense scientific scrutiny and increasingly strict regulation over the past few decades (Wadanambi et al, 2008;Holecy and Mousavi, 2012;Datko-Williams et al, 2014). Despite restrictions on or the phasing out of Pb in most applications, the widespread occurrence of elevated concentrations in soil remains a concern from both an environmental standpoint and a health perspective (Luo et al, 2012;Walraven et al, 2015).…”

Real and simulated bioavailability of lead in contaminated and uncontaminated soils

“…Lead (Pb) pollution represents an important environmental and health issue all over the world, since it is very toxic and may causes disorders of nervous, reproductive and digestive systems [ 1 , 2 ]. Soils in the areas surrounding mining exploitations and ore processing facilities are affected by the increased content of toxic elements, which can enter in the food chain through plants uptake [ 3 - 5 ].…”

Gallium

“…These concentrations can be exceeded near mine sites. The best known examples are the neurological effects of lead on children (Holecy and Mousavi, 2012) and the carcinogenic effects of arsenic in drinking water (Gupta and others, 2012). The current U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standard for lead is 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2013a), and current U.S. primary and secondary drinking water standards for lead, zinc, and copper are 0, 5, and 1 milligrams per liter (mg/L), respectively (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2013b).…”