Lead isotope heterogeneity in lead white: From lead white raw pigment to canvas

Time-dependent variation of lead isotopes of lead white in 17th century Dutch paintings

“…D’Imporzano et al . ( 6 ) found that lead isotope values within individual paintings vary by up to four times the analytical uncertainty (2 SD) in 206 Pb/ 204 Pb, equal to a 10th of the variation of Dutch paintings in this study (44.5, 2 SD; Fig. 5, A and B ).…”

“…To fully comprehend the significance of the observed isotopic variation in 17th century Dutch paintings, it is important to address the isotopic heterogeneity present within a single painting ( 6 ). This question is particularly important, as lead white is used in multiple ways in the build-up of a painting ( 12 , 23 , 24 ).…”

“…In the last decades, lead isotope analysis of lead white ( 6 – 8 , 14 , 15 ) focused on the following: (i) the place of origin of the lead ore, i.e., its provenance ( 5 , 7 , 8 ); (ii) identification of paintings according to artistic groups ( 7 , 8 , 15 ); (iii) investigating the composition/variation of lead isotope of lead white within a single painting ( 6 ); and (iv) authentication of paintings, as in the case of the attribution of a copy of Saint Praxedis to Vermeer ( 16 , 17 ) or the attribution of Michiel Sweerts paintings to his period in Rome ( 18 ). Most recently, lead isotope analysis of lead white has also been coupled with the study of 14 C of the carbonate for dating purposes ( 15 , 19 ).…”

“…This characteristic, in the context of lead white, also allows the identification of specific artistic groups that were active in different regions where different lead sources were used to produce the pigment. This is evident from the markedly different lead isotope compositions of lead white used by 16th to 17th century artists from Italy (south of the Alps) and The Netherlands (north of the Alps) ( 6 – 8 ).…”

“…This implies that there was recycling/mixing of different leads with different isotopic compositions, which can be identified by lead isotope analysis. Written records ( 26 – 28 ) and lead isotope studies ( 6 – 8 ) indicate that England was the main lead source in Europe in the 17th century and that lead white produced in The Netherlands was most likely made using English lead.…”