Lead Emissions and Population Vulnerability in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, 2006–2013: Impact of Pollution, Housing Age and Neighborhood Racial Isolation and Poverty on Blood Lead in Children
Abstract:This research investigates the relationships between airborne and depositional industrial lead emission concentrations modeled using Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) American Meteorological Society/Environmental Protection Agency Regulatory Model (AERMOD) and childhood blood lead levels (BLL) in the Detroit Metropolitan Area (DMA) 2006–2013. Linear and mediation interaction regression models estimated the effects of older housing and airborne and depositional lead emission concentrations on black and … Show more
“…Moody and Grady modeled airborne Pb in the Detroit Metropolitan Area using the U.S. EPA’s AERMOD model and found depositional and airborne Pb contributed directly and significantly to children’s BLLs, even after controlling for housing age and social structures, with black children at a continued disadvantage. 44 This was consistent with the authors’ prior finding that Pb-emitting facilities were primarily located in, and moving to, highly Black segregated neighborhoods regardless of poverty levels. 45 Egan et al., in their review of national survey data on BLLs collected over four decades, concluded that non-Hispanic Black race/ethnicity and poverty are consistently associated with higher BLLs.…”
Background:
Despite great progress in reducing environmental lead (Pb) levels, many children in the United States are still being exposed.
Objective:
Our aim was to develop a generalizable approach for systematically identifying, verifying, and analyzing locations with high prevalence of children’s elevated blood Pb levels (EBLLs) and to assess available Pb models/indices as surrogates, using a Michigan case study.
Methods:
We obtained
BLL test results of children
of age in Michigan from 2006–2016; we then evaluated them for data representativeness by comparing two percentage EBLL (%EBLL) rates (number of children tested with EBLL divided by both number of children tested and total population). We analyzed %EBLLs across census tracts over three time periods and between two EBLL reference values (
vs.
) to evaluate consistency. Locations with high %EBLLs were identified by a top 20 percentile method and a Getis-Ord Gi* geospatial cluster “hotspot” analysis. For the locations identified, we analyzed convergences with three available Pb exposure models/indices based on old housing and sociodemographics.
Results:
Analyses of 2014–2016 %EBLL data identified 11 Michigan locations via cluster analysis and 80 additional locations via the top 20 percentile method and their associated census tracts. Data representativeness and consistency were supported by a 0.93 correlation coefficient between the two EBLL rates over 11 y, and a Kappa score of
of %EBLL hotspots across the time periods (2014–2016) and reference values. Many EBLL hotspot locations converge with current Pb exposure models/indices; others diverge, suggesting additional Pb sources for targeted interventions.
Discussion:
This analysis confirmed known Pb hotspot locations and revealed new ones at a finer geographic resolution than previously available, using advanced geospatial statistical methods and mapping/visualization. It also assessed the utility of surrogates in the absence of blood Pb data. This approach could be applied to other states to inform Pb mitigation and prevention efforts.
https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9705
“…Moody and Grady modeled airborne Pb in the Detroit Metropolitan Area using the U.S. EPA’s AERMOD model and found depositional and airborne Pb contributed directly and significantly to children’s BLLs, even after controlling for housing age and social structures, with black children at a continued disadvantage. 44 This was consistent with the authors’ prior finding that Pb-emitting facilities were primarily located in, and moving to, highly Black segregated neighborhoods regardless of poverty levels. 45 Egan et al., in their review of national survey data on BLLs collected over four decades, concluded that non-Hispanic Black race/ethnicity and poverty are consistently associated with higher BLLs.…”
Background:
Despite great progress in reducing environmental lead (Pb) levels, many children in the United States are still being exposed.
Objective:
Our aim was to develop a generalizable approach for systematically identifying, verifying, and analyzing locations with high prevalence of children’s elevated blood Pb levels (EBLLs) and to assess available Pb models/indices as surrogates, using a Michigan case study.
Methods:
We obtained
BLL test results of children
of age in Michigan from 2006–2016; we then evaluated them for data representativeness by comparing two percentage EBLL (%EBLL) rates (number of children tested with EBLL divided by both number of children tested and total population). We analyzed %EBLLs across census tracts over three time periods and between two EBLL reference values (
vs.
) to evaluate consistency. Locations with high %EBLLs were identified by a top 20 percentile method and a Getis-Ord Gi* geospatial cluster “hotspot” analysis. For the locations identified, we analyzed convergences with three available Pb exposure models/indices based on old housing and sociodemographics.
Results:
Analyses of 2014–2016 %EBLL data identified 11 Michigan locations via cluster analysis and 80 additional locations via the top 20 percentile method and their associated census tracts. Data representativeness and consistency were supported by a 0.93 correlation coefficient between the two EBLL rates over 11 y, and a Kappa score of
of %EBLL hotspots across the time periods (2014–2016) and reference values. Many EBLL hotspot locations converge with current Pb exposure models/indices; others diverge, suggesting additional Pb sources for targeted interventions.
Discussion:
This analysis confirmed known Pb hotspot locations and revealed new ones at a finer geographic resolution than previously available, using advanced geospatial statistical methods and mapping/visualization. It also assessed the utility of surrogates in the absence of blood Pb data. This approach could be applied to other states to inform Pb mitigation and prevention efforts.
https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9705
“…Examples include stratifying the overall model evaluating the association between moving to a greener neighborhood and change in physical activity by area-based income [ 152 ], or as Buck Louis et al [ 153 ] included, an interaction term between birthing person race/ethnicity and chemical plasma concentration in a model testing the main effect between chemical concentration and neonatal anthropometric measurements. Authors rarely used qualitative ( n = 4 [2%] [ 41 , 57 , 65 , 154 ]) or mediation ( n = 1 [< 1%] [ 64 ]) methods. Fig.…”
Purpose of Review
The volume of public health environmental justice (EJ) research produced by academic institutions increased through 2022. However, the methods used for evaluating EJ in exposure science and epidemiologic studies have not been catalogued. Here, we completed a scoping review of EJ studies published in 19 environmental science and epidemiologic journals from 2018 to 2021 to summarize research types, frameworks, and methods.
Recent Findings
We identified 402 articles that included populations with health disparities as a part of EJ research question and met other inclusion criteria. Most studies (60%) evaluated EJ questions related to socioeconomic status (SES) or race/ethnicity. EJ studies took place in 69 countries, led by the US (n = 246 [61%]). Only 50% of studies explicitly described a theoretical EJ framework in the background, methods, or discussion and just 10% explicitly stated a framework in all three sections. Among exposure studies, the most common area-level exposure was air pollution (40%), whereas chemicals predominated personal exposure studies (35%). Overall, the most common method used for exposure-only EJ analyses was main effect regression modeling (50%); for epidemiologic studies the most common method was effect modification (58%), where an analysis evaluated a health disparity variable as an effect modifier.
Summary
Based on the results of this scoping review, current methods in public health EJ studies could be bolstered by integrating expertise from other fields (e.g., sociology), conducting community-based participatory research and intervention studies, and using more rigorous, theory-based, and solution-oriented statistical research methods.
“… 68 Over the 2010s, the proportion of children in Detroit with an elevated blood lead level, defined as >5 μg/dL, was consistently around twice as high as the Michigan state-wide proportion. 69 Neighborhood-level factors associated with elevated blood lead levels among children in the Detroit area include nearby housing demolitions, 70 lead concentrations in soil, 71 depositional and airborne lead pollution from industry, 72 and older housing stock. 72 These exposure sources are disproportionately concentrated in racially-segregated (predominantly Black) Detroit neighborhoods, 72 , 73 contributing to environmental injustice among community members of all ages.…”
Background:
Metals may influence reproductive health, but few studies have investigated correlates of metal body burden among reproductive-aged women outside of pregnancy. Furthermore, while there is evidence of racial disparities in exposure to metals among U.S. women, there is limited research about correlates of metal body burden among Black women.
Objective:
To identify correlates of whole blood metal concentrations among reproductive-aged Black women.
Methods:
We analyzed cross-sectional data from a cohort of 1,664 Black women aged 23–35 years in Detroit, Michigan, 2010–2012. We collected blood samples and questionnaire data. We measured concentrations of 17 metals in whole blood using inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometer-triple quadrupole and total mercury using Direct Mercury Analyzer-80. We used multivariable linear regression models to identify sociodemographic, environmental, reproductive, and dietary correlates of individual metal concentrations.
Results:
In adjusted models, age was positively associated with multiple metals, including arsenic, cadmium, and mercury. Education and income were inversely associated with cadmium and lead. Current smoking was strongly, positively associated with cadmium and lead. Alcohol intake in the past year was positively associated with arsenic, barium, copper, lead, mercury, vanadium, and zinc. Having pumped gasoline in the past 24 hours was positively associated with cadmium, chromium, and molybdenum. Having lived in an urban area for the majority of residence in Michigan was positively associated with arsenic, lead, and nickel. Higher water intake in the past year was positively associated with several metals, including lead. Fish intake in the past year was positively associated with arsenic, cesium, and mercury. We also observed associations with body mass index, season, and other environmental, reproductive, and dietary factors.
Significance:
We identified potential sources of exposure to metals among reproductive-aged Black women. Our findings improve understanding of exposures to metals among non-pregnant reproductive-aged women, and can inform policies in support of reducing disparities in exposures.
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