“…Lead is classified as a probable carcinogen (Group 2A) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) based on sufficient animal data and limited human data (IARC, 2006). Thus far, epidemiological studies evaluating lead exposure and cancer risk have been inconclusive (IARC, 2006; Fu and Boffetta, 1995; Jemal, et al, 2002; Steenland and Boffetta, 2000), although recently there is more consistent evidence for increased risk of cancers of the stomach, brain, urinary bladder and kidney with lead exposure (Bhatti, et al, 2009; Boffetta, et al, 2011; Cocco, et al, 1998; Golabek, et al, 2009; Rajaraman, et al, 2006; Rousseau, et al, 2007; van Bemmel, et al, 2011; van Wijngaarden and Dosemeci, 2006). Given the widespread degree of lead exposure and the difficulty in evaluating rare diseases such as brain and kidney cancers in industry-based studies, it is important to improve exposure assessment for general population and case-control studies to generate new evidence.…”