Lead-Carbon Batteries toward Future Energy Storage: From Mechanism and Materials to Applications

Abstract

The lead acid battery has been a dominant device in large-scale energy storage systems since its invention in 1859. It has been the most successful commercialized aqueous electrochemical energy storage system ever since. In addition, this type of battery has witnessed the emergence and development of modern electricity-powered society. Nevertheless, lead acid batteries have technologically evolved since their invention. Over the past two decades, engineers and scientists have been exploring the applications of lead acid batteries in emerging devices such as hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage; these applications necessitate operation under partial state of charge. Considerable endeavors have been devoted to the development of advanced carbon-enhanced lead acid battery (i.e., lead-carbon battery) technologies. Achievements have been made in developing advanced lead-carbon negative electrodes. Additionally, there has been significant progress in developing commercially available lead-carbon battery products. Therefore, exploring a durable, long-life, corrosion-resistive lead dioxide positive electrode is of significance. In this review, the possible design strategies for advanced maintenance-free lead-carbon batteries and new rechargeable battery configurations based on lead acid battery technology are critically reviewed. Moreover, a synopsis of the lead-carbon battery is provided from the mechanism, additive manufacturing, electrode fabrication, and full cell evaluation to practical applications. Graphical abstract

Recent progress in the development of carbon‐based materials in lead–carbon batteries

“…Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2022, Electrochemical Energy Reviews. [ 29 ] AC, activated carbon; AEC, asymmetric supercapacitor; LAB, lead‐acid battery.…”

“…Energy density 35-40 Wh kg −1 [29] 30-40 Wh kg −1 [84] 200-300 Wh kg −1 [85] Power density ∼100-500 W kg −1 [29] ∼40-50 W kg −1 [84] ∼800 W kg −1 [85] Cycle life ∼1500-2000 [29,86] ∼500-1000 cycles [84] ∼4000-5000 cycles [85] Depth of discharge ∼50-80% [29] ∼30-50% [84] ∼80-95% [85] Operation temperature 40°C to −30°C [29] 50°C to −20°C [84] 50°C to −20°C [85] Safety Excellent [29] Issues to be solved [84] Issues to be solved [85,87] Battery and installation cost Lower [29] Lower [84] Higher [85,88] Abbreviations: LAB, lead-acid battery; LCB, lead-carbon battery; LIB, lithium-ion battery.…”

In situ detection of reactive oxygen species spontaneously generated on lead acid battery anodes: a pathway for degradation and self-discharge at open circuit

“…These are used for increasing electrode conductivity and suppressing the occurrence of hard sulfation. 34,35 Thus, the possible mechanism of CO 2 and CO evolution could be the direct oxidation of the carbon additives in the commercial Pb (Pb-C) anodes, but this requires an oxidative potential >1.3 V vs. RHE. 36 To consolidate these observations, we hypothesized that carbon and Pb could be directly oxidized by the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated from the ORR on the Pb-C anodes (eqn (5)-( 8)).…”

Preparation of Pb-Ca Master Alloy by Molten Salt Electrolysis

“…[1][2][3] LABs have the characteristics of safety, low cost, easy charging, and a high recovery rate of over 99%. [4][5][6] In typical commercial LABs, the grid alloy that holds the Pb paste and PbO 2 paste is an important part of LABs. [7][8][9] However, the pure Pb grid is too soft to hold the paste and keep the mechanical robustness of the full cell.…”

“…The concentration of metal Ca is 0.105 ∼ 0.12 wt% in the positive grids and 0.15 ∼ 0.16 wt% in the negative grids. 5,16 Thus, the preparation of the Pb-Ca master alloy is an important step in making grid alloys for commercially available LABs.…”