A major factor in the evolution of microbial genomes is the lateral acquisition of genes that evolved under the functional constraints of other species. Integration of foreign genes into a genome that has different components and circuits poses an evolutionary challenge. Moreover, genes belonging to complex modules in the pretransfer species are unlikely to maintain their functionality when transferred alone to new species. Thus, it is widely accepted that lateral gene transfer favors proteins with only a few proteinprotein interactions. The propensity of proteins to participate in protein-protein interactions can be assessed using computational methods that identify putative interaction sites on the protein.Here we report that laterally acquired proteins contain significantly more putative interaction sites than native proteins. Thus, genes encoding proteins with multiple protein-protein interactions may in fact be more prone to transfer than genes with fewer interactions. We suggest that these proteins have a greater chance of forming new interactions in new species, thus integrating into existing modules. These results reveal basic principles for the incorporation of novel genes into existing systems. network evolution | genomics | horizontal gene transfer | systems biology T he horizontal transfer of DNA, known as lateral gene transfer (LGT), is considered a major mechanism for the acquisition of novel biological functions in bacteria (1). Transfer of a single gene introduces an evolutionary puzzle; biological processes are typically carried out by the interaction of several proteins, not by a single gene product. Genes that belong to complex modules might not be functional when transferred alone to a new species. Thus, it is widely accepted that genes with fewer interactions are more likely to be transferred to, and retained in, a new species. This postulate is known as the complexity hypothesis (2). Subsequent studies that elaborated on the importance of proteinprotein interactions (PPIs) in this context provide some support for the principles laid out in the complexity hypothesis (3-5); for example, it has been shown that proteins encoded by genes that have been more frequently transferred in evolution tend to have fewer interactions than other proteins (5). However, supporting evidence for the complexity hypothesis comes from analysis of the PPIs of transferred genes within their contemporary, posttransfer species, not from the number of PPIs in their pretransfer host. Indeed, fewer contemporary PPIs might imply a small number of PPIs in the pretransfer host as well, thus corroborating the assumption that highly interacting proteins are less likely to be transferred and retained. Alternatively, fewer contemporary PPIs might merely imply that horizontally acquired genes had less time to develop interactions with proteins in their new host compared with vertically acquired genes. Thus, such a posttransfer analysis does not provide conclusive evidence regarding the relationship between PPI and LGT. Unfortun...