Language processing in reading and speech perception is fast and incremental: Implications for event-related potential research

Rayner, Keith; Clifton, Charles

doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.05.002

Cited by 105 publications

(87 citation statements)

References 54 publications

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“…Similarly, in sentences presented at normal speaking rates (i.e., around 120 to 200 words per minute; cf., Rayner & Clifton, 2009), ERPs to predicted and unpredicted adjective inflections differed no later than 50 ms after inflection onset (Van Berkum et al, 2005). Together, these findings support the notion that early processes are primarily engaged when perceptual load and task requirements are high (Handy & Mangun, 2000;Lavie, 1995Lavie, , 2005Lavie & Tsal, 1994;Luck, Woodman, & Vogel, 2000).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 63%

Stimulus onset asynchrony and the timeline of word recognition: Event-related potentials during sentence reading

et al. 2012

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Article in press in Neuropsychologia [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.011] Please note that this unproofed preprint may be subject to minor changes. [May 5, 2012] SOA and the Timeline of Word Recognition 2 AbstractThree ERP experiments examined the effect of word presentation rate (i.e., stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA) on the time course of word frequency and predictability effects in sentence reading. In Experiments 1 and 2, sentences were presented word-by-word in the screen center at an SOA of 700 and 490 ms, respectively. While these rates are typical for psycholinguistic ERP research, natural reading happens at a considerably faster pace. Accordingly, Experiment 3 employed a near-normal SOA of 280 ms, which approximated the rate of normal reading. Main results can be summarized as follows: (1) The onset latency of early frequency effects decreases gradually with increasing presentation rates. (2) An early interaction between top-down and bottom-up processing is observed only under a nearnormal SOA. (3) N400 predictability effects occur later and are smaller at a near-normal (i.e., high) presentation rate than at the lower rates commonly used in ERP experiments. (4) ERP morphology is different at the shortest compared to longer SOAs. Together, the results point to a special role of a near-normal presentation rate for visual word recognition and therefore suggest that SOA should be taken into account in research of natural reading.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 63%

Stimulus onset asynchrony and the timeline of word recognition: Event-related potentials during sentence reading

et al. 2012

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“…Speaking (120 -200 wpm) and reading (250 -350 wpm; Rayner & Clifton, 2009) are both substantially faster than skilled typing (50 -100 wpm). A fundamental problem in typing is to type as fast as one can read or think (speak to oneself); the fingers must catch up to the tongue or eye.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hierarchical control and skilled typing: Evidence for word-level control over the execution of individual keystrokes.

Crump

Logan

2010

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cogni

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Routine actions are commonly assumed to be controlled by hierarchically organized processes and representations. In the domain of typing theories, word-level information is assumed to activate the constituent keystrokes required to type each letter in a word. We tested this assumption directly using a novel single-letter probe technique. Subjects were primed with a visual or auditory word or a visually presented random consonant string and then probed to type a single letter from the prime or another randomly selected letter. Relative to randomly selected letters, probe responses were speeded for first, middle, and last letters contained in visual and auditory word primes but not for middle and last letters contained in random consonant primes. This suggests that word-level information causes parallel activation of constituent keystrokes, consistent with hierarchical processing. The role of hierarchical processing in typing and routine action is discussed.Keywords: typing, hierarchical processing, performance, routine, motor control Everyday tasks and routines are structured hierarchically with higher level goal completion resting on the completion of component subgoals. For example, the higher level goal of hammering a nail involves several lower level strokes of the hammer on the head of the nail until the nail head is flush with the board. Theories of routine action commonly assume that the hierarchical structure of tasks is reflected in the cognitive processes and representations mediating task performance (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1986), whereby higher level goal representations control the unpacking and execution of constituent lower level goal representations. In the present experiments, we sought to test how higher level goals interact with lower level goals in the domain of skilled typing. In particular, typing models assume that word-level representations activate keystroke execution processes for each letter in the word in parallel. In three experiments, we developed a novel singleletter probe technique to test this assumption of parallel activation in skilled typists.Typing is a compelling example of the ability to fluently and rapidly coordinate intention with performance (Shaffer, 1976). The intention to type and perform keystrokes is argued to be organized hierarchically with higher level intentions to type words and sentences controlling lower level processes through which words are converted into ordered keystrokes (Shaffer, 1975). We have elaborated on these assumptions in our inner-outer loop theory of typing (Logan & Crump, 2009). We characterized the outer loop as receiving input from the world in the form of written or spoken language and generating a series of words that are passed individually to the inner loop. The inner loop receives words as input, translates each word into keystrokes corresponding to each letter, and then executes them. Our previous work focused on the role of attention and monitoring during keystroke execution to investigate the assumption that outer and inner lo...

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“…In the following two experiments, we examined speed-accuracy strategies in continuous typing, whereby typists were asked to type a paragraph. Typing speed is much slower than reading or speaking rates (Logan & Crump, 2011;Rayner & Clifton, 2009), so the inner loop constitutes a limiting factor in controlling typing speed in continuous typing. Thus, any variability in outer-loop latency may be absorbed into cognitive slack, and thus we expect that changes in typing rate are attributable mainly to the inner loop.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Rayner & Clifton, 2009), so the inner loop is more likely to limit typing speed than the outer loop. Variations in the time required for different outer-loop processes may be absorbed into the slack produced by waiting for the inner loop to finish typing the current word (Pashler, 1994).…”

Section: The Present Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Continuous typing tasks emphasize the contribution of the inner loop. Skilled typing (50 to 100 words per minute [WPM]; Logan & Crump, 2011) is much slower than language generation (i.e., speaking rate is about 200 WPM; Rayner & Clifton, 2009) and language comprehension (i.e., reading rate is about 300 WPM; Rayner & Clifton, 2009), so the inner loop is more likely to limit typing speed than the outer loop. Variations in the time required for different outer-loop processes may be absorbed into the slack produced by waiting for the inner loop to finish typing the current word (Pashler, 1994).…”

Section: The Present Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

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Speed–accuracy trade-off in skilled typewriting: Decomposing the contributions of hierarchical control loops.

Yamaguchi

Crump

Logan

2013

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

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Typing performance involves hierarchically structured control systems: At the higher level, an outer loop generates a word or a series of words to be typed; at the lower level, an inner loop activates the keystrokes comprising the word in parallel and executes them in the correct order. The present experiments examined contributions of the outer-and inner-loop processes to the control of speed and accuracy in typewriting. Experiments 1 and 2 involved discontinuous typing of single words, and Experiments 3 and 4 involved continuous typing of paragraphs. Across experiments, typists were able to trade speed for accuracy but were unable to type at rates faster than 100 ms/keystroke, implying limits to the flexibility of the underlying processes. The analyses of the component latencies and errors indicated that the majority of the trade-offs were due to inner-loop processing. The contribution of outer-loop processing to the trade-offs was small, but it resulted in large costs in error rate. Implications for strategic control of automatic processes are discussed.Keywords: motor control, hierarchical processing, speed-accuracy trade-off, skilled performance, action sequence A major issue in studies of cognitive skill concerns the ways in which skilled performance can be controlled strategically. Skill is acquired through training, and the extensive training required to attain high levels of skill makes component processes highly automatic (Anderson, 1982;Fitts, 1964;Logan, 1988;Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977); practice makes them specialized, stereotyped, and inflexible. Paradoxically, expert skills are often robust and flexible, so they can be utilized in various task contexts (MacKay, 1982). The present study addresses this paradox, asking whether automatic processes can be controlled strategically. To this end, we investigated a basic form of strategic control in cognitive performance-the trade-off between speed and accuracy. We focused on typewriting, which is one of the most prevalent skills among college students in modern society (Logan & Crump, 2011). Hierarchical Control in Skilled TypingTypewriting is an ideal subject for investigation of skilled performance. College students typically have a semester of formal training in middle school and 10 to 11 years of experience in which they type every day (Logan & Crump, 2011). Typing is a complex skill: It involves selecting specific keys that correspond to the letters in a to-be-typed word, moving appropriate fingers to precise key locations, and executing keystrokes in the correct order. Skilled typists implement these processes rapidly without watching the fingers that they control (i.e., touch typing).Typewriting is an expression of language, and language has hierarchically nested structures: Texts contain sentences, sentences contain words, and words contain letters. Skilled typewriting involves hierarchically organized cognitive processes that address these levels of representation (Fendrick, 1937;Lashley, 1951;Logan & Crump, 2011;Shaffer, 1975;Sternberg, Knoll, &...

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Language processing in reading and speech perception is fast and incremental: Implications for event-related potential research

Cited by 105 publications

References 54 publications

Stimulus onset asynchrony and the timeline of word recognition: Event-related potentials during sentence reading

Stimulus onset asynchrony and the timeline of word recognition: Event-related potentials during sentence reading

Hierarchical control and skilled typing: Evidence for word-level control over the execution of individual keystrokes.

Speed–accuracy trade-off in skilled typewriting: Decomposing the contributions of hierarchical control loops.

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