Language policy and reforms of writing systems for minority languages in China

Abstract

This paper examines how China's language policy, dictated by its ethnic minorities policy, has influenced reforms of writing systems for minority languages since 1949. Measured by the landmark publication of the Plan for the Phonetic Spelling of Chinese in 1957, reforms of minority writing systems can be divided into three stages. The pre-Plan stage featured efforts to match written and oral languages, and Russian influence including introduction of the Cyrillic script. During the Plan-oriented stage, romanization ruled not only the creation of new writing systems for oral languages, but also the reform of existing non-roman systems. The relatively Plan-independent stage, ushered in by standardization of the Yi writing system in a Siniform script, has opened the door, though only narrowly, to "native" writing systems. Examined from an international perspective, China's language policy has undergone the same waxing and waning of assimilation and accommodation as those of industrialized and developing countries; but the Chinese experience demonstrates both the advantages and disadvantages of direct government involvement in minority language maintenance and development.

Language Learning Motivation in Pakistan: An Analysis of Social and Psychological Reactance in Pakistan

“…Over the past 20 years, a substantial amount of research on motivation has been conducted in a range of social and cultural contexts (Ye Xincai et al, 2024). According to experts, there are more than 80 languages spoken by 55 distinct ethnic communities (Zhou, 2023).…”

“…Over the past 20 years, a substantial amount of research on motivation has been conducted in a range of social and cultural contexts (Ye Xincai et al, 2024). According to experts, there are more than 80 languages spoken by 55 distinct ethnic communities (Zhou, 2023). Thus, studying English is not just a learning goal but also a way to broaden one's perspectives and secure success in the connected and globalized world of today.…”

8 How Standard Zhuang has Met with Market Forces

“…The 1950s' Zhuangwen used Latin, Cyrillic and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) letters, because it was developed by Russian scholars working with Chinese linguists (Luo, 2008b: 321; see further Ager, 2016;GZAR Minority Language Working Group Research Team, 1984;Li & Huang, 2004;Sinj & Loz, 2008;Wang, 1979Wang, , 1983. This alphabetic or 'Romanized' script was developed with an overarching goal of minority language standardization in mind: enabling mass literacy (Premaratne, 2015;Rohsenow, 2004;Zhou, 2001Zhou, , 2003. The literacy planners' objective was therefore a writing system that would be transparent to Zhuang speakers and thus 'easy to learn' (Li & Huang, 2004: 244).…”

Perceptions of invisible Zhuang minority language in Linguistic Landscapes of the People’s Republic of China and implications for language policy

“…The broader study also found that education for literacy in Zhuang is very inaccessible, although Zhuang remains a relatively widely-spoken language albeit with indications of significant cessation to intergenerational transmission underway, especially in cities (Grey, 2021b, pp. 32-62;Zhou 2000, 2001, and see Grey, 2021b for debate on whether Zhuang is an 'endangered' language). As this article reveals, this can result in Zhuangspeaking participants not being able to read written Zhuang in the LL.…”

“…Thus, the currency of any literacy learnt mid-century may have expired. And in any case, not much Zhuang literacy was learnt mid-century or after the second Romanisation; throughout the twentieth century, as Chinese language policy expert Minglang Zhou reports, schooling in Zhuang was largely not available: the Zhuang are an archetypal group 'hav[ing] had limited or no bilingual education since[1949]' Zhou (2001,…”