Language as category: using prototype theory to create reference points for the study of multilingual data

Abstract

In this paper I present a framework for the conceptualization of languages based on the prototype theory of categorization proposed by Eleanor Rosch and her colleagues for natural semantic categories. It is motivated by research in the Casamance region of southern Senegal, where a high level of multilingualism in non-standardized varieties is the norm, making accurate description of languages, and thus analysis of multilingual discourse, problematic. I show that languages in this context can be conceived of as categories, of which linguistic features may be more or less prototypical members. Such an approach can form the basis for a more robust method of language description, integrating rich sociolinguistic data, and facilitating more nuanced analysis of multilingual discourse data.

A typology of small-scale multilingualism

“…In multilingual situations that involve many non-standardized, under- or undescribed varieties, investigating language use can be a challenge (Di Carlo et al, 2021). A novel solution to this problem is taken by Watson (2019), who applies a prototype theory approach to establish salient features for two closely related languages spoken in close proximity in Casamance, Senegal, and then uses these to identify the different languages that occur in naturalistic multilingual interactions. It is of note that this approach makes heavy use of detailed sociolinguistic knowledge of individuals’ biographies and linguistic repertoires.…”

“…First of all, multilingualism can be seen simply as “a desirable state of social affairs” (Evans, 2010, p. 276) that has always been present, an ideology known from Aboriginal Australia, where people also praise the aesthetics of multilingualism as reflecting the diversity and the beauty of real life better than monolingualism (Evans, 2010; Merlan, 1981; Sutton, 1978, 1997). Secondly, multilingualism can be a strategy “that maximizes alliances and protective networks through different languages” (Lüpke, 2016, p. 53), where the protection can be sought from humans or from spirits connected to this language via the “land–language” or “land–political unit” link, as Di Carlo (2016), Lüpke (2016) and Watson (2019, p. 136) suggest for African cases, de Vries (2012) and Foley (2005) for West Papua, Cabalzar (2013) and Epps and Stenzel (2013) for Upper Rio Negro and Kroskrity (2018) for California. Thirdly, multilingualism can be perceived as a guarantee of peace, a way to prevent conflicts, realizing the urge to be distinct through languages (cf.…”

Patterns and perspectives shape perceptions: Epistemological and methodological reflections on the study of small-scale multilingualism

“…Language categorisation is likewise intricately bound to perspectival categorisation, not only when concerned with heteroglossic speech, but also regarding research participants' desire to offer 'authentic' forms seen as prototypical for a named language (Watson, 2019). In Gujaher, a frequently used word for 'cat' is siibo, and the one for 'plane' is avioŋ.…”

Implementasi Metode Prototyping pada Perancangan Aplikasi Electronic Ticket (E-Ticket) berbasis Android

“…Prototyping adalah proses yang digunakan untuk membantu pengembangan perangkat lunak dalam membentuk model dari perangkat lunak yang harus dibuat [5][6] [7]. Metode ini dilakukan secara bertahap, yaitu dengan mengembangkan suatu prototype yang sederhana terlebih dahulu baru kemudian dikembangkan dari waktu ke waktu sampai perangkat lunak selesai dikembangkan [8]. Prototype merupakan bentuk dasar atau model awal dari suatu sistem atau subsistem [9] Secara garis besar terdapat beberapa tahapan dalam metode prototyping yaitu yang pertama adalah tahap desain, pembuatan program, dan yang terakhir adalah tahap evaluasi [2].…”

“…Pada tahap ini merupakan hasil dari prototype atau model akhir yang telah dibuat sesuai dengan yang diinginkan. Langkah berikutnya dari metode ini adalah membuat rancangan sistem aplikasi, yaitu membangun sistem berdasarkan hasil dari tahap sebelumnya [2] [8].…”