Landscape of risk to roe deer imposed by lynx and different human hunting tactics

Norum, Jørgen Kvernhaugen; Lone, Karen; Linnell, John D. C.; Oddén, John; Loe, Leif Egil; Mysterud, Atle

doi:10.1007/s10344-015-0959-8

Cited by 36 publications

(49 citation statements)

References 52 publications

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“…, Norum et al. ). We found summer niches of migrants to be the least correlated with the nightlights index, which cannot be over‐interpreted, but may be suggestive that roe deer move away from human disturbance in summer.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Migration in geographic and ecological space by a large herbivore

Peters

Hebblewhite

Mysterud

et al. 2017

Ecological Monographs

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Partial migration, when only part of the population migrates seasonally while the other part remains resident on the shared range, is the most common form of migration in ungulates. Migration is often defined by spatial separation of seasonal ranges and consequently, classification of individuals as migrants or residents is usually only based on geographic criteria. However, the underlying mechanism for migration is hypothesized to be movement in response to spatiotemporal resource variability and thus, migrants are assumed to travel an “ecological distance” (ED) or shift their realized ecological niches. While ecological and geographic distances should be related, their relationship may depend on landscape heterogeneity. Here, we tested the utility of ecological niche theory to both classify migratory individuals and to understand the underlying ecological factors for migratory behavior. We developed an integrative approach combining measures in geographic and ecological niche space and used this to classify and explain migratory behavior of 71 annual roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) movement trajectories in five European study areas. First, to assess the utility of the ED concept for classifying migratory behavior, we tested whether roe deer sought the same ecological conditions year‐round or moved to different ecological conditions by measuring the annual ED travelled and the seasonal niche overlap using multivariate statistics. Comparing methods to classify migrants and residents based on geographic and ecological niche space, we found that migratory roe deer switched between seasons both in geographic and in ecological dimensions. Second, we tested which seasonal ecological factors separated resident from migrant niches using discriminant analysis and which broad‐scale determinants (e.g., spatiotemporal forage variation and population density) predicted migration probability using generalized linear models. Our results indicated that factors describing forage and topographic variability discriminated seasonal migrant from resident niches. Determinants for predicting migration probability included the temporal variation (seasonality) and also the spatial variability of forage patches. Last, we also found suggestive evidence for a positive relationship between population density and migration probability. By applying the ecological niche concept to the study of partial migration in ungulates, our work underlines that partial migration is a form of behavioral plasticity.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Migration in geographic and ecological space by a large herbivore

Peters

Hebblewhite

Mysterud

et al. 2017

Ecological Monographs

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“…, Norum et al. ). There was a reduction in feeding activity during fall migration possibly affecting the ability of elk to further increase body condition for winter (Cook , Middleton et al.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hunting exacerbates the response to human disturbance in large herbivores while migrating through a road network

Paton¹,

Ciuti

Quinn

et al. 2017

Ecosphere

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Abstract. Migrations of large ungulates are globally threatened in environments affected by increasing human disturbance, rising large carnivore predation, deteriorating habitat quality, and changing climate. Animals migrating outside of protected areas can be exposed to greater human pressure, and this effect can be stronger when humans are perceived to be a predation risk, such as during hunting seasons. Using four consecutive years of satellite telemetry data (n = 138 migration events), we compared habitat selection, movement, and behavior of a large partially migratory herbivore while migrating through a heterogeneous landscape in spring and fall. We tested the hypothesis that fall hunting exacerbates the response of a large herbivore exposed to human disturbance while migrating through a road network. All elk (Cervus elaphus) selected greater forest cover, reduced movement rates, and avoided roads during fall-day than in any other season or time of day. Avoidance of roads was reduced during spring at night, for example, the time period of no hunting with fewest people on roads. Elk using stopovers in fall displayed different seasonal and diurnal behaviors between sexes in response to the disturbance. Females used steeper terrain during fall-day and males did not use this strategy in fall. Male avoidance of roads was much stronger than females during fall-day and males were less likely to cross a road during fall. Such responses are probably linked to higher hunting pressure on males vs. females. Finally, we found that elk spent more time feeding during spring migration compared to the fall migration and elk vigilance was >3 times higher in the fall hunting season. Our results provide insights into the effect of fear of humans on the ecology of both sexes of a migrating large herbivore when using stopovers. Such changes in behavior and stopover use might affect animal fitness by decreasing foraging, cause displacement from high-quality habitats, or affect the permeability of migration route stopovers.

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“…Predation by lynx, Lynx lynx , and hunting by humans represent the largest sources of mortality for adult European roe deer in southern Norway (Melis et al ). Hunters and lynx impose contrasting spatial patterns of predation risk on roe deer, with the ambush‐predator lynx imposing higher risk in dense habitat and hunters with rifles more in open habitat (Lone et al , Norum et al ), but the ways in which contrasting temporal patterns in predation risk affect roe deer habitat selection have not been quantified. Hunter activity and hunting risk are confined to daytime, whereas risk from the lynx is likely higher during night, as they are mainly nocturnal (Schmidt , Podolski et al ).…”

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confidence: 99%

Temporal variation in habitat selection breaks the catch‐22 of spatially contrasting predation risk from multiple predators

Lone

Mysterud

Gobakken

et al. 2016

Oikos

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Predator avoidance depends on prey being able to discern how risk varies in space and time, but this is made considerably more complicated if risk is simultaneously present from multiple predators. This is the situation for an increasing number of mammalian prey species, as large carnivores recover or are reintroduced in ecosystems on several continents. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus in southern Norway illustrate a case in which prey face two predators with contrasting patterns of predation risk. They face a catch‐22 situation: spatially avoiding the risk from one predator (lynx Lynx lynx in dense habitat) implies exposure to the other (hunters in open habitat). Using GPS‐data from 29 roe deer, we tested for daily and seasonal variation in roe deer selection for habitat with respect to the habitats’ year‐round average risk level. Generally, roe deer altered their habitat selection between night and day in a pattern consistent with being able to avoid predicted risk from the nocturnal lynx during night and predicted risk from human hunters during day. However, seasonal variation in habitat selection only partially corresponded with the predicted seasonal variation in risk. Whereas roe deer avoided areas with high risk from hunters more strongly during the hunting season than in other seasons, there was a lack of selection towards areas and time periods lowering the risk of lynx predation during winter. It seems likely that the risk of starvation and thermal stress constrain roe deer habitat selection during this energetically challenging season with cold temperatures, snow cover and limited natural forage. The habitat selection pattern of roe deer fits thus only partly with the two contrasting risk gradients they face. Adjusting risk‐avoidance behavior temporally can be an adaptive response in the case of several predators whose predation patterns differ in space and time.

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Landscape of risk to roe deer imposed by lynx and different human hunting tactics

Cited by 36 publications

References 52 publications

Migration in geographic and ecological space by a large herbivore

Migration in geographic and ecological space by a large herbivore

Hunting exacerbates the response to human disturbance in large herbivores while migrating through a road network

Temporal variation in habitat selection breaks the catch‐22 of spatially contrasting predation risk from multiple predators

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