Lactation, maternal behavior and infant growth in common marmoset monkeys ( Callithrix jacchus ): effects of maternal size and litter size

Abstract

We examined the relationship between lactation performance and infant growth in a captive population of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) that varied in both maternal and litter size. Though common marmosets display a typical primate pattern of dilute milk and relatively slow infant growth rates (factors associated with low daily lactation investment and minimal maternal size effects), we hypothesized that the marmoset's small body size would make lactation investment more sensitive to maternal size than is true for largerbodied primates. Smaller mothers rearing twins had lower milk fat, lower gross energy in milk samples collected in mid to late lactation and lower nursing-bout frequencies than did large mothers nursing twins. Lactation performance and maternal behavior did not differ between large and small mothers when rearing singletons, with a single exception: small mothers had a lower gross energy in mid-lactation milk samples. Relative growth rates in twins but not singletons were affected by maternal size, such that small mothers supported more growth per infant when rearing singletons while large mothers supported more growth per infant when rearing twins. Among the larger mothers, only, older mothers supported somewhat, though not significantly, less growth per infant, regardless of litter size. Twin infants of small mothers appeared to respond to below-optimal levels of milk yield by initiating maternal carrying less often. The relative energy intake of mothers was similar regardless of litter or maternal size. Small mothers rearing twins drew more heavily on reserves, reflected in a linear weight loss during lactation; however, the reserves drawn upon were inadequate to meet the lactation demand, resulting in lower milk energy output. In addition, small mothers rearing twins were more likely to be ill and less likely to be fertile in the year following lactation than were large mothers of twins or mothers of any size rearing singletons.

A comparative study of litter size and sex composition in a large dataset of callitrichine monkeys

“…Such “robustness” of singletons may stem from variation in maternal energy allocation. For example, Oftedal, Power, Oftedal, Power, and Layne () discovered that common marmoset twins born to smaller‐than‐average dams received relatively poorer milk (i.e., lower milk fat and lower gross energy) than twins born to heavier dams (Oftedal et al, ). This disparity translated into slower growth for twins.…”

Neurobehavioral development of common marmoset monkeys

“…Tardif and colleagues (Tardif, Power, Oftedal, Power, & Layne, 2001;Tardif, Layne, Cancino, & Smucny, 2002) described the potential impact of number of infants on these variables. They demonstrated that outcomes on nursing behavior as well as time spent off carriers are affected by whether there are 1, 2, or 3 infants per litter.…”

Milk matters: offspring survival in Columbian ground squirrels is affected by nutrient composition of mother's milk

“…Offspring mass and growth rates are correlated to milk composition in several mammals including gray seals (Iverson et al, 1993;Mellish et al, 1999), Iberian red deer (Landete-Castillejos et al, 2001;Gomez et al, 2002), and common marmosets (Tardif et al, 2001). Mass and growth, however, are dependent not only on milk composition, but also on lactation length (Mellish et al, 1999) and milk yield (Landete-Castillejos et al, 2003a;Hinde et al, 2009), which together determine the total amount of nutrients transferred during the lactation period, and the neonate's metabolic efficiency in converting nutrients and energy into mass (Mellish et al, 1999).…”

“…Nevertheless, there is some evidence that a mother's somatic tissue stores can impact the amount of nutrients she transfers to her young through milk. Milk composition has been shown to vary with maternal body mass or condition in humans (Homo sapiens; Nommsen et al, 1991;Dewey, 1997), Subantarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus tropicalis; Georges et al, 2001), rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta; Hinde, 2007b), Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus; Landete-Castillejos et al, 2005), common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus; Tardif et al, 2001), mares (Equus ferus caballus; Doreau et al, 1992), and gray seals (Halichoerus grypus; Mellish et al, 1999). In turn, the composition of milk, especially fat and protein content, has been demonstrated to have positive impacts on the postnatal growth rate and body mass of suckling young (Iverson et al, 1993;Mellish et al, 1999;Tardif et al, 2001;Landete-Castillejos et al, 2003b).…”