Korean Living Standards under Japanese Colonial Rule: A Critical Review of the Longitudinal Trajectory of Stature

Age–Period–Cohort Analysis of Trends in Infectious Disease Mortality in South Korea from 1983 to 2017

“…Korea's economic growth until the 1980s led to improvements in both the average income and income distribution. However, globalization and economic restructuring led to a rise in income inequality from the early 1990s [28,29]. Growing socioeconomic inequality may negatively influence ID mortality by increasing the risk of exposure to IDs (e.g., overcrowding and unhygienic environment), susceptibility to IDs (e.g., reduced immunity due to high stress levels and poor nutritional status), and disease severity of IDs (e.g., decreased access to quality healthcare and unhealthy behaviors) [10].…”

“…The cohort effect showed an inverted U-shape. The increasing RR of ID deaths among the cohorts born between 1903 and 1943 might be the consequences of deteriorating living standards of the Korean people during the 1910-1945 Japanese forced occupation period [29]. It has been noted that low socioeconomic circumstances, poor nutritional conditions, and exposure to IDs in early life may be associated with an increase in ID mortality in later life [32,33].…”

“…It has been noted that low socioeconomic circumstances, poor nutritional conditions, and exposure to IDs in early life may be associated with an increase in ID mortality in later life [32,33]. Throughout this period, Koreans experienced worsening nutritional status, decreased average height, lack of educational opportunities, widening socioeconomic inequality, and increasing ID mortality [14,29,34], possibly resulting in an increased ID mortality risk. Extreme exploitation of material and human resources by Japan to secure war supplies for the China-Japan War and World War II between 1931 and 1945 exacerbated the living standards for the Koreans [29], which might have caused the peak of ID mortality risk in the 1933-1943 cohorts.…”

“…Throughout this period, Koreans experienced worsening nutritional status, decreased average height, lack of educational opportunities, widening socioeconomic inequality, and increasing ID mortality [14,29,34], possibly resulting in an increased ID mortality risk. Extreme exploitation of material and human resources by Japan to secure war supplies for the China-Japan War and World War II between 1931 and 1945 exacerbated the living standards for the Koreans [29], which might have caused the peak of ID mortality risk in the 1933-1943 cohorts. Among the 1933-1943 cohorts, the RR slightly decreased in men after peaking in the 1933 cohort, but gradually increased in women, peaking in the 1943 cohort.…”

“…After the independence in 1945, extreme socioeconomic inequality was rapidly alleviated by the land reform that lowered the high percentage rent rate and brought the Japanese-owned farmland back to Korean farmers [29]. The release of suppressed educational demand with the full implementation of compulsory primary education in 1954 led to an increase in enrolment rates for primary education [34], probably reducing the RR in the 1948 cohort.…”