Jumping mechanisms of treehopper insects (Hemiptera, Auchenorrhyncha, Membracidae)

Abstract

SUMMARYThe kinematics and jumping performance of treehoppers (Hemiptera, Auchenorrhyncha, Membracidae) were analysed from high speed images. The eight species analysed had an 11-fold range of body mass (3.8-41mg) and a 2-fold range of body length (4.1-8.4mm). Body shape was dominated by a prothoracic helmet that projected dorsally and posteriorly over the body, and in some species forwards to form a protruding horn. Jumping was propelled by rapid depression of the trochantera of the hindlegs. The hindlegs were only 30-60% longer than the front and middle legs, and 47-94% the length of the body in different species. They were slung beneath the body and moved together in the same plane. In preparation for a jump, the hindlegs were initially levated and rotated forwards so that the femora were pressed into indentations of the coxae. The tibiae were flexed about the femora and the tarsi were placed on the ground directly beneath the lateral edges of the abdomen. Movements of the front and middle legs adjusted the angle of the body relative to the ground, but for most treehoppers this angle was small, so that the body was almost parallel to the ground. The rapid depression of the hindlegs accelerated the body to take-off in 1.2ms in the lighter treehoppers and 3.7ms in the heavier ones. Take-off velocities of 2.1-2.7ms −1 were achieved and were not correlated with body mass. In the best jumps, these performances involved accelerations of 560-2450ms −2 (g forces of 47-250), an energy expenditure of 13.5-101μJ, a power output of 12-32mW and exerted a force of 9.5-29mN. The power output per mass of muscle far exceeds the maximum active contractile limit of normal muscle. Such requirements indicate that treehoppers must be using a power amplification mechanism in a catapult-like action. Some jumps were preceded by flapping movements of the wings, but the propulsive movements of the hindlegs were crucial in achieving take-off. Supplementary material available online at

Jumping mechanisms in gum treehopper insects (Hemiptera, Eurymelinae)

“…At the midline, a protrusion from the medial wall of one hind coxa inserted into the medial wall of the other hind coxa and might be expected to enhance the linkage between the two hindlegs (Fig.2C). Such a press stud or popper-like arrangement is present in leafhoppers (Burrows, 2007a) but has not been found in membracid treehoppers (Burrows, 2013). By contrast, the coxae of the front and middle legs were smaller, were separated from each other at the midline (and thus had no linking structures) (Fig.2A), and were capable of greater rotation with their respective thoracic segments.…”

“…The fastest jumping insects, both in terms of their acceleration times and their take-off velocities are found in these lineages (Burrows, 2003;Burrows, 2006a;Burrows, 2009). The third lineage, the Membracoidea, contains the leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) and the treehoppers (Membracidae), which are also accomplished jumpers (Burrows, 2007b;Burrows, 2013).…”

“…Another defining difference between these two groups is that most leafhoppers (the Ulopinae are an exception) have characteristically long hindlegs that are twice the length of the front legs (Burrows, 2007a). In sharp contrast, the treehoppers (Membracidae) have short hindlegs that are only 30-60% longer than the front legs (Burrows, 2013). When using a catapult mechanism, the length of the hindlegs should have an impact only on the time taken to depress and extend the legs fully and hence on the distribution of the ground reaction forces over time .…”

Jumping mechanisms in flatid planthoppers (Hemiptera, Flatidae)

“…By contrast, direct contraction of muscle can only produce power outputs of 250-500 W kg −1 (Askew and Marsh, 2002;Ellington, 1985;Josephson, 1993;Weis-Fogh and Alexander, 1977). Jumping in flatids, as in other hemipteran planthoppers (Burrows, 2009), froghoppers (Burrows, 2007c), leafhoppers (Burrows, 2007a) and treehoppers (Burrows, 2013), must therefore also involve power amplification. A catapult mechanism is used by fleas (Bennet-Clark and Lucey, 1967), locusts (Bennet-Clark, 1975) and hemipteran bugs to achieve this amplification.…”

Jumping performance of flea hoppers and other mirid bugs (Hemiptera, Miridae)

“…In the suborder Auchenorrhyncha of the Hemiptera, catapult mechanisms are used to propel jumping by many species of frog-, plant-, leaf-and treehoppers (Burrows, 2006a(Burrows, , 2007a(Burrows, , 2009a(Burrows, , 2013c. In the three other hemipteran suborders, only a few jumping species have been analysed in detail but all are judged to use a catapult mechanism from the measured power requirements of their jumps; in the Heteroptera, one species of shore bug (Saldidae) (Burrows, 2009b), in the Coleorrhyncha, one species of Hackeriella (Peloridiidae) (Burrows et al, 2007) and in the Sternorrhyncha, three species of psyllids (Pysllidae) (Burrows, 2012).…”