“…Yet a wide range of historical scholarship (GoGwilt 1998, 226ff;Heller 2006, 150;Osterhammel 2014, 616, 912-13;Makdisi 2014, xv;Aydin 2007, 3), and social science (Zarakol 2011, 42-49;Buzan and Lawson 2015, 25-28), suggests that exactly this equation between 'Westernisation' and 'modernity' was a general feature of nineteenth-century cultural changeespecially in those societies where the experience of relative backwardness was most acute. In particular, it is now clear that East Asian, Ottoman, and Russian intellectual production played a key role in fostering the logics inter-cultural comparison that helped the transform the West into a standard frame of reference (Bonnett 2017, 63-122;Carrier 1995;Duara 2001;Esenbel 2004). Among the most important works of this kind, Aydin's (2007) study of Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian thought demonstrates that the idea of a distinctively Occidental mode of social and political organisation was initially the creation of mid-nineteenth century Asian intellectuals, whose interest in the imagined West arose from a shared, post-Enlightenment project of progressive social transformation (Aydin 2007, 21-37).…”