“…Besides acting as nanoparticles and therapeutic materials delivery vehicles, EVs derived from certain cell types (e.g., stem cells, immune cells, tubular cells, cancer cells) possess intrinsic self-therapeutic efficacy and can be utilized directly as therapeutic biomolecules [155][156][157][158][159]. Through the presence of natural surface proteins (e.g., integrins, L-selectin, CD44, CXCR4) or engineered targeting moieties (e.g., Kim-1-binding peptide, RVG peptide), EVs exhibit efficient localization to the diseased kidney, leading to improvements in renal function and injury by inhibiting apoptosis, inflammation, and fibrosis, while promoting cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and autophagy.…”