It Takes a Village: Protecting Rural African American Youth in the Context of Racism

Abstract

Prior research demonstrates negative consequences of racism, however, little is known about community, parenting, and intrapersonal mechanisms that protect youth. Using a mixed-methods approach, this study illuminated linkages between positive and negative contextual influences on rural African American adolescent outcomes. Quantitative results provide support for Structural Ecosystems Theory, in that the influence of discrimination and collective socialization on adolescent outcomes was mediated by racial socialization and positive parenting. Parenting and community influences contributed to adolescent racial identity and self image, which protected against common negative responses to racism; including academic underachievement, succumbing to peer pressure, and aggressive tendencies. Qualitative results indicate that current measures of discrimination may underestimate adolescents' experiences. Adolescents reported racist experiences in the domains of school, peers, and with the police (males only). Moreover, qualitative findings echoed and expanded quantitative results with respect to the importance of the protective nature of parents and communities.

Developmental Implications of Discrimination

“…Perceived discrimination has been shown to be uncorrelated with adolescents' racial identities. In addition, a positive correlation has been found between perceived discrimination and self-image, indicating that, as adolescents reported more experiences with discrimination, they also tended to report a better self-image (Berkel et al, 2009). In addition to causing a boost in self-image, perceptions of discrimination have also been shown to positively affect self-pride.…”

“…In addition to causing a boost in self-image, perceptions of discrimination have also been shown to positively affect self-pride. In facing frequent discriminatory events, some youth feel as if they are being "truly socialized" into their own ethnic/racial group and are really beginning to understand what it means to be members of marginalized groups (Berkel et al, 2009).…”

“…A wide variety of measures have been adopted from the adult literature, largely for use in adolescence. For example, one of the more commonly used measures, the Schedule of Racist Events, has been used and adapted for studies involving adolescents (e.g., Berkel et al, 2009Berkel et al, , 2010Brittian et al, 2013;Brody et al, 2006;Brody, Kogan, & Chen, 2012;Gibbons et al, 2004Gibbons et al, , 2012. Originally developed for and validated on an adult sample of African Americans, this measure asks respondents to rate how many times a variety of racist events have occurred over the past year and across the lifetime, and how stressful these events were.…”

Social Integration and Students’ Perceptions of the Transition to Middle School

“…Increasing peer support for minority youth in middle school may require educators to target social issues of peer acceptance for these students. Minority students may experience discrimination from peers in middle school (Berkel et al, 2009). Additionally, Hamm, Lambert et al (2013) found that African American male students who affiliated with peer groups with norms favoring effort and achievement were less admired by peers at the end of the school year than at the beginning of the year.…”

The Multidimensionality of Racial/Ethnic Socialization: Scale Construction for the Cultural and Racial Experiences of Socialization (CARES)

“…The prevalence of the types of R/ES therefore may not be as important as how well these types of R/ES differentially mediate the stress associated with racial encounters. There is research to support the mediating role of R/ES (Bentley et al 2009;Berkel et al 2009;Hughes et al 2009;Neblett et al 2008). Because these encounters can be positively or negatively stressful, the appraisal of the detriment and intensity of that stress is subjective but highly dependent upon one's exposure, experience and socialization surrounding racial/ethnic politics.…”