It's not too Late for the Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja): High Levels Of Genetic Diversity and Differentiation Can Fuel Conservation Programs

Abstract

BackgroundThe harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) is the largest Neotropical bird of prey and is threatened by human persecution and habitat loss and fragmentation. Current conservation strategies include local education, captive rearing and reintroduction, and protection or creation of trans-national habitat blocks and corridors. Baseline genetic data prior to reintroduction of captive-bred stock is essential for guiding such efforts but has not been gathered previously.Methodology/FindingsWe assessed levels of genetic diversity, population structure and demographic history for harpy eagles using samples collected throughout a large portion of their geographic distribution in Central America (n = 32) and South America (n = 31). Based on 417 bp of mitochondrial control region sequence data, relatively high levels of haplotype and nucleotide diversity were estimated for both Central and South America, although haplotype diversity was significantly higher for South America. Historical restriction of gene flow across the Andes (i.e. between our Central and South American subgroups) is supported by coalescent analyses, the haplotype network and significant F ST values, however reciprocally monophyletic lineages do not correspond to geographical locations in maximum likelihood analyses. A sudden population expansion for South America is indicated by a mismatch distribution analysis, and further supported by significant (p<0.05) negative values of Fu and Li's DF and F, and Fu's F S. This expansion, estimated at approximately 60 000 years BP (99 000–36 000 years BP 95% CI), encompasses a transition from a warm and dry time period prior to 50 000 years BP to an interval of maximum precipitation (50 000–36 000 years BP). Notably, this time period precedes the climatic and habitat changes associated with the last glacial maximum. In contrast, a multimodal distribution of haplotypes was observed for Central America suggesting either population equilibrium or a recent decline.SignificanceHigh levels of mitochondrial genetic diversity in combination with genetic differentiation among subgroups within regions and between regions highlight the importance of local population conservation in order to preserve maximal levels of genetic diversity in this species. Evidence of historically restricted female-mediated gene flow is an important consideration for captive-breeding programs.

Haematological values for captive harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja)

“…Considering this species population decline, strategies from conservation to maintenance of regional populations are important to preserve the genetic diversity (Lerner et al 2009), also important is the development of scientific research to achieve knowledge about the species' biology and reproductive physiology and the maintenance of population ex situ. For the maintenance of healthy animals in captivity is essential to adopt disease prevention programs and knowledge of physiological parameters, such as the haematological values, which aid in the early diagnosis of diseases and allow monitoring the clinical progress of patients (Mitchell & Johns 2008).…”

Genetic diversity of the Critically Endangered Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi (Aves: Accipitridae) and notes on its conservation

“…Fu and Li's F and D F , Tajima's D, and Fu's F S do not support demographic expansion. In addition, the presence of high frequencies of lower class modes (i.e., 0 and 3 nucleotide differences in the mismatch distribution) is a pattern observed in simulations of populations that experienced a recent bottleneck, although other factors can also contribute to this scenario (Rogers & Harpending 1992;Lerner et al 2009). Similar patterns of mismatch distribution have been observed in some subpopulations of birds that experienced a recent bottleneck (Harpy Eagles Harpia harpyja, Lerner et al 2009; Prairie Chickens Tympanuchus cupido, Johnson et al 2007).…”

“…Genetic diversity of the Accipitridae was summarized in Table 3 in the study of Lerner et al (2009) Cadahia et al 2007). It should be noted that the Philippine Eagle, in contrast to these taxa mentioned, is an island species whereas the other raptors species inhabit huge distribution ranges.…”

“…The species has been documented to live over 40 years in captivity, although persecution and habitat loss may have shortened their lifespan in the wild. Long-lived eagles such as the Whitetailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (Hailer et al 2006), White-rumped vulture G. bengalensis (Johnson et al 2008) and Harpy eagle H. harpyja (Lerner et al 2009), similarly, have high mitochondrial genetic diversity. Species with a long lifespan can buffer against genetic diversity loss because of a large pool of juveniles that are more resilient to disturbances in the environment than adults (Kuo & Janzen 2004).…”

Movements of Harpy EaglesHarpia harpyjaduring their first two years after hatching

“…Vargas & Vargas 2011), Peru (Piana 2007) and Venezuela (Á lvarez-Cordero 1996), the Harpy Eagle is one of the least-known raptor species of the world. Most of the information available on the species is related to diet and adult behaviour at their breeding areas (Rettig 1978, Á lvarez-Cordero 1996, Muñ iz-López 2008 and recently also on population genetics (Banhos et al 2008, Lerner et al 2009). The species feeds primarily on tree-dwelling mammals, particularly monkeys and sloths, as well as on large birds and reptiles (Fowler & Cope 1964, Rettig 1978, Á lvarez-Cordero 1996, Galetti & de Carvalho Jr 2000, Piana 2007, Muñ iz-López 2008, Springer et al 2011.…”