Islam and cannabis: Legalisation and religious debate in Iran

Abstract

Iran is currently discussing cannabis and opium regulations, which could bring a legalisation of drug consumption through a state supervised system. The article engages with the question of cannabis by looking at the legal interpretation of religious authorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The choice of Iran is justified for several reasons: firstly, Iran has a long history of drug use and cannabis has been part of the country’s intoxicant traditions since times immemorial; secondly, the Iranian state is unique in that it combines religious exegesis with political machination through official channels; finally, among all Middle East and Islamic countries, Iran is at the avant-garde in experimenting in the field of drugs policy which makes an excellent case for the study of cannabis regulation. The article is the result of a direct engagement with Iran’s leading Shi’a authorities, the maraje’-e taqlid, ‘source of emulation’. The authors redacted a list of eight questions (estefta’at) about the status of cannabis in Iranian society. It questioned cannabis’ legality in Islam, its potential medical use, the feasibility of domestic production and other relevant aspects of its social-religious life. Based on the responses, the authors analysed the difference in opinions among the religious scholars and speculate on the possibility of policy reform. Given the dearth of scholarly work about illicit drugs in the Islamic world, about which many readers might not be familiar, the article opens with an overview of the place of cannabis in the history of Islamic societies. It discusses terminological ambiguities, references in religious texts and traditions, and the general interpretations within Muslim religious schools of thought. Then, it discusses the status of cannabis in contemporary Iran before tackling the responses provided by the religious scholars. Eventually, the paper puts forward reflections about the potential implications for future policy developments on cannabis.

Extension of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to Predict Patterns of Marijuana Use among Young Iranian Adults

“…With regard to Iran, following Ghiabi et al [7], the government is currently reviewing cannabis and opium regulations. The review could result in legalisation of drug consumption through a state-supervised system.…”

The council of expediency: crisis and statecraft in Iran and beyond

“…61 The use of such a medical research centre hints at the traditional acceptance of medical expediency in Shi'ite religious jurisprudence, where substances and/or actions deemed haram (forbidden) can generally be reputed licit if they are proved beneficial to the believer's health. 62 The clergy's approach to birth control, research on stem-cells and the right to use narcotic drugs for medical purposes are examples of this medicalised rationale at the base of jurisprudential arguments and policy-making. 63 Studies of the economic cost of drug (ab)use and the benefits of a reformed approachsuch as decriminalisation of drugshave also been submitted to the Council by independent researchers or affiliates to INCAS.…”

Bridging the Accessibility Gap of Cannabinoid Medicine and Arabic Culture

“…Medical cannabis therapy was practiced by scholars in the medieval Islamic world; however, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the cultivation and use of cannabis were prohibited. Medieval Arab scholars' documented use of MCT dates from the eighth to the eighteenth centuries, and the Unani Tibbi (Arabictraditional medicine) [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] refers to the plant's diuretic, anti-emetic, anti-epileptic, anti-inflammatory, and pain-killing properties. A seventeenth-century pharmacopeia written by al-Intaqui prescribed cannabis for a number of somatic ailments, but also pointed out its euphoric and lethargic effects.…”

“…A seventeenth-century pharmacopeia written by al-Intaqui prescribed cannabis for a number of somatic ailments, but also pointed out its euphoric and lethargic effects. 12 Despite the scarcity of works dealing with MCT in Unani Tibbi, eight Unani Tibbi formulas containing cannabinoids were documented by Dwarakanath in 1965. 10 Currently, most Muslim majority countries enforce a strict prohibition on cannabis use as an axiom of the Islamic prohibition of narcotic or stimulant substances (haram); however, a reform of cannabis laws is under consideration in Iran.…”

“…10 Currently, most Muslim majority countries enforce a strict prohibition on cannabis use as an axiom of the Islamic prohibition of narcotic or stimulant substances (haram); however, a reform of cannabis laws is under consideration in Iran. 13 The holy Koran does not explicitly forbid cannabis 12,13 ; therefore, the interpretation of the status of cannabis is very much reliant on the religious scholars' interpretations. One interpretative category relevant to cannabis use for medical reasons is that of "emergency" (zarurat), thus allowing believers to use or to perform generally prohibited substances or acts if these are deemed necessary in situations of emergency, or absolute necessity.…”