Is photosynthesis a requirement for paralytic shellfish toxin production in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum algal–bacterial consortium?

Maas, Elizabeth W.; Brooks, Heather J. L.

doi:10.1007/s10811-009-9458-1

Cited by 8 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…This cellular amount of PST started to decline after 6 days of darkness ( Figure 8 ). Similar results were reported in Alexandrium minutum , that STX content disappeared completely after incubating the culture in the dark for 22 days [ 35 ]. This change of toxicity after continuous darkness further indicated that light energy is crucial for toxin biosynthesis.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 88%

“…Similarly, from our study, growth of the cell density of AC-T stopped on day 7 ( Figure 2 ) and the toxin content per cell increased by nearly 3.5 folds on day 20 with 10% of normal phosphate provision ( Figure 4 A). The most common explanation of this phenomenon was the accumulation of toxins produced inside undivided algal cells when there was insufficient phosphate for DNA synthesis [ 35 ] prerequisite to cell division. This was supported by the observation that cell volumes of AC-T cells increased under phosphate limitation.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Production of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) in Toxic Alexandrium catenella is Intertwined with Photosynthesis and Energy Production

Tse

Lee

Mak

et al. 2020

Toxins

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To investigate the mechanism for the production of paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) in toxic dinoflagellates, with a 2D-gel based approach, we had made two sets of proteomic comparisons: (a) between a toxic Alexandrium catenella (AC-T) and a phylogenetically closely related non-toxic strain (AC-N), (b) between toxic AC-T grown in a medium with 10% normal amount of phosphate (AC-T-10%P) known to induce higher toxicity and AC-T grown in normal medium. We found that photosynthesis and energy production related proteins were up-regulated in AC-T when compared to AC-N. However, the same group of proteins was down-regulated in AC-T-10%P when compared to normal AC-T. Examining the relationship of photosynthesis and toxin content of AC-T upon continuous photoperiod experiment revealed that while growth and associated toxin content increased after 8 days of continuous light, toxin content maintained constant when cells were shifted from continuous light to continuous dark for 3 days. This emphasized the cruciality of light availability on toxin biosynthesis in AC-T, while another light-independent mechanism may be responsible for higher toxicity in AC-T-10%P compared to normal AC-T. Taken all together, it is believed that the interplay between “illumination”, “photosynthesis”, “phosphate availability”, and “toxin production” is much more complicated than what we had previously anticipated.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 88%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Production of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) in Toxic Alexandrium catenella is Intertwined with Photosynthesis and Energy Production

Tse

Lee

Mak

et al. 2020

Toxins

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“…For example, the yield of saxitoxin per cell in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella is proportional to hours of daylight (Proctor et al 1975). Also, A. minutum is not capable of producing saxitoxin after a 22 d incubation period in the dark, while parallel light-grown cultures produced 1.17 µg per 10 000 algal cells (Maas & Brooks 2010). pCO 2 and/or pH changes affect toxicity of the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia, which causes notoriously damaging blooms along the Pacific coast of North America and elsewhere around the world (Scholin et al 2000, Trainer et al 2000, 2009, Schnetzer et al 2007.…”

Section: Effects Of Individual Global Change Factors On Harmful Algaementioning

confidence: 99%

Global change and the future of harmful algal blooms in the ocean

Fu¹,

Tatters²,

Hutchins³

2012

Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.

238

140

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The frequency and intensity of harmful algal blooms (HABs) and phytoplankton community shifts toward toxic species have increased worldwide. Although most research has focused on eutrophication as the cause of this trend, many other global-and regional-scale anthropogenic influences may also play a role. Ocean acidification (high pCO 2 /low pH), greenhouse warming, shifts in nutrient availability, ratios, and speciation, changing exposure to solar irradiance, and altered salinity all have the potential to profoundly affect the growth and toxicity of these phytoplankton. Except for ocean acidification, the effects of these individual factors on harmful algae have been studied extensively. In this review, we summarize our understanding of the influence of each of these single factors on the physiological properties of important marine HAB groups. We then examine the much more limited literature on how rising CO 2 together with these other concurrent environmental changes may affect these organisms, including what is possibly the most critical property of many species: toxin production. New work with several diatom and dinoflagellate species suggests that ocean acidification combined with nutrient limitation or temperature changes may dramatically increase the toxicity of some harmful groups. This observation underscores the need for more in-depth consideration of poorly understood interactions between multiple global change variables on HAB physiology and ecology. A key limitation of global change experiments is that they typically span only a few algal generations, making it difficult to predict whether they reflect likely future decadal-or century-scale trends. We conclude by calling for thoughtfully designed experiments and observations that include adequate consideration of complex multivariate interactive effects on the long-term responses of HABs to a rapidly changing future marine environment.

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“…Some studies have analyzed toxin production and toxin profile diversity in axenic batch cultures of A. tamarense (= A. pacificum ) (Omura, 1999), while the results of other studies have demonstrated that the low growth rate of axenic A. tamarense is due to nutrient deficiencies rather than a lack of bacteria (Singh et al 1982; Dantzer and Levin, 1997). It has been suggested that the effects of bacteria on PSP toxin production by marine Alexandrium species can be explained by altered toxin synthesis pathways, by algae or bacteria alone, or by algal-bacterium interactions (Maas and Brooks 2010). Although the axenic culturing of dinoflagellates poses multiple difficulties, bacteria-free cultures are useful for understanding the characteristics of PSP toxins and the underlying physiology that affects their production by the dinoflagellate, with no complications caused by bacterial interactions.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Paralytic shellfish toxin production by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Chinhae Bay, Korea) in axenic, nutrient-limited chemostat cultures and nutrient-enriched batch cultures

Han

Lee

Anderson

et al. 2016

Marine Pollution Bulletin

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Blooms of Alexandrium pacificum (formerly Alexandrium tamarense) are common in Chinhae Bay (Korea), presumably linked to anthropogenic eutrophication. Here we examine PSP toxin content and composition in axenic chemostat and batch cultures of A. pacificum using growth conditions that differed according to dilution rate, nutrient limitations, and enrichments. Phosphate (P)-limited cells in chemostat cultures had higher toxin content and a toxin composition that differed from that of nitrogen (N)-limited cells at the highest growth rates. Therefore, toxin composition changes do occur in axenic cultures of A. pacificum following extended growth under steady state conditions. In nutrient-limited batch cultures that received N and P enrichment, the N-enriched cultures showed a more diverse toxin profile than the P-enriched cells; the toxin content of N-enriched cells was lower than in the P-enriched cultures. We infer the following order for the biosynthesis of individual toxins: C1, C2>GTX3>GTX1>neoSTX.

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Is photosynthesis a requirement for paralytic shellfish toxin production in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum algal–bacterial consortium?

Abstract: While there is increasing evidence that marine bacteria are involved in the production of paralytic shellfish toxins in algal blooms, the exact roles of the bacteria and microalgae have proved elusive.

Cited by 8 publications

References 15 publications

Production of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) in Toxic Alexandrium catenella is Intertwined with Photosynthesis and Energy Production

Production of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) in Toxic Alexandrium catenella is Intertwined with Photosynthesis and Energy Production

Global change and the future of harmful algal blooms in the ocean

Paralytic shellfish toxin production by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Chinhae Bay, Korea) in axenic, nutrient-limited chemostat cultures and nutrient-enriched batch cultures

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