Is paternal oxytocin an oxymoron? Oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, oestradiol and cortisol in emerging fatherhood

Abstract

How do hormonal levels in men change from pregnancy to after the birth of their firstborn child, and what is the role of oxytocin, alone or in interplay with other hormones, in explaining variance in their parenting quality? We explored in 73 first-time fathers the development of five hormones that have been suggested to play a role in parenting: oxytocin (OT), vasopressin (AVP), testosterone (T), oestradiol (E2) and cortisol (Cort). In an extended group of fathers ( N = 152) we examined associations with fathers’ behaviour with their 2-month-old infants. OT and E2 showed stability from the prenatal to the postnatal assessments, whereas AVP and T decreased significantly, and Cort decreased marginally. OT on its own or in interplay with other hormones was not related to paternal sensitivity. Using an exploratory approach, the interaction between T and E2 emerged as relevant for fathers’ sensitive parenting. Among fathers with high E2, high T was associated with lower sensitivity. Although we did not find evidence for the importance of OT as stand-alone hormone or in interplay with other hormones in this important phase in men's lives, the interaction between T and E2 in explaining variation in paternal behaviour is a promising hypothesis for further research. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Interplays between oxytocin and other neuromodulators in shaping complex social behaviours’.

Impact of parity and salivary hormonal levels on motivation towards infant emotions

“…Similar findings between parental sensitivity and cortisol have been published (Finegood et al, 2016;Sinisalo et al, 2022), although cortisol levels have also been positively associated with heightened responsiveness to infant odors (Fleming, Steiner, & Corter, 1997) and sympathy triggered by crying infant stimuli (Stallings et al, 2001). Estradiol levels, on the other hand, have been positively associated with higher parental sensitivity (Glynn et al, 2016), although not in fathers with high testosterone levels (Bakermans-Kranenburg et al, 2022).…”

Hormonal and behavioral responses to an infant simulator in women with and without children

“…In addition, associations between estradiol and behavior might depend on individual progesterone or testosterone levels, which have been found to be important in earlier studies. For example, smaller decline in the estradiol to progesterone ratio during pregnancy has been associated with higher postpartum feelings of attachment toward the infant (Fleming, Ruble, et al., 1997), and in fathers high testosterone levels combined with high, but not low, estradiol levels have been associated with lower sensitivity (Bakermans‐Kranenburg et al., 2022). In the future, it is relevant to also measure progesterone, which might have a moderating effect on estradiol reactivity.…”

“…Relatedly, women with a lower prenatal estradiol increase were rated as providing more spousal support by their partner (Edelstein et al., 2017). The mechanisms underlying the somewhat paradoxical negative relations between prenatal estradiol levels and postnatal parenting outcomes are not clear, but it is possible that they are related to interactions between estradiol and other hormones such as testosterone (Bakermans‐Kranenburg et al., 2022). However, the preliminary findings are partially in line with studies on nonhuman primates, which have associated higher estradiol levels during pregnancy with less optimal maternal behavior toward offspring (Fite & French, 2000; French et al., 2004).…”

The Roles of Androgens in Humans: Biology, Metabolic Regulation and Health

“…T activates mating relationships [ 273 ] through complex mechanisms in which cortisol [ 274 ] and reward systems, such as endorphins [ 275 ] and oxytocin [ 276 ], play important roles. The settling of durable relationships result in a decrease in T [ 277 ] and increase in oxytocin [ 278 , 279 ] levels in males. This change may be, in part, justified by the need to temper the aggressiveness and dominance drive elicited by high testosterone [ 280 ] or DHT.…”