Is iridium demand a potential bottleneck in the realization of large-scale PEM water electrolysis?

Minke, Christine; Suermann, Michel; Bensmann, Boris; Hanke‐Rauschenbach, Richard

doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.04.174

Cited by 209 publications

(169 citation statements)

References 16 publications

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“…For the reactively sputtered Ir 18 O 2 , the electrode was anodically polarized at 25 mA cm −2 for 60 s (Figure 2f). In the meantime, the Ir dissolution rate and the signals for 16 O 16 O, 16 O 18 O, and 18 O 18 O are recorded. The results suggested that the LOM may take place on the surface of both materials during the OER, but the lattice oxygen of hydrous IrO x may participate in the OER more easily-because there are abundant defects, Ir III OOH groups, and porosity on the surface of hydrous IrO x , which weaken the connections between IrO 6 clusters and thereby promote the LOM as well as the accompanied Ir dissolution.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

On the Durability of Iridium‐Based Electrocatalysts toward the Oxygen Evolution Reaction under Acid Environment

She

Zhao

et al. 2021

Adv Funct Materials

127

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Proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers (PEMWEs) driven by renewable electricity provide a facile path toward green hydrogen production, which is critical for establishing a sustainable hydrogen society. The high working potential and the corrosive environment pose severe challenges for developing highly active and durable electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). To date, iridium (Ir)‐based materials, largely metallic Ir and Ir‐based oxides, are the most suitable OER electrocatalysts for PEMWEs due to their balanced activity and durability. Tremendous efforts have been devoted to improving the specific activity of Ir species to reduce the cost; however, advances in enhancing the durability of Ir‐based electrocatalysts are rather limited. In this review, the recent research progress on tackling the stability issues of Ir‐based OER electrocatalysts in acid media is summarized, aiming to provide inspiration for designing highly active and stable Ir‐based electrocatalysts. The OER mechanism and the associated failure modes of active Ir species are summarized. Then, mechanistic studies on the dissolution behavior of Ir species and experimental attempts on enhancing the durability of Ir‐based electrocatalysts are discussed. The personal perspectives for future studies on Ir‐based OER electrocatalysts are also provided.

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confidence: 99%

On the Durability of Iridium‐Based Electrocatalysts toward the Oxygen Evolution Reaction under Acid Environment

She

Zhao

et al. 2021

Adv Funct Materials

127

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“… 3 Based on the slow but continuous anodic dissolution of Ir in alkaline media, 4 scientists often claim that it must be replaced in alkaline CO 2 electrolyzers. 5 , 6 …”

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confidence: 99%

Local Chemical Environment Governs Anode Processes in CO₂ Electrolyzers

et al. 2021

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A major goal within the CO 2 electrolysis community is to replace the generally used Ir anode catalyst with a more abundant material, which is stable and active for water oxidation under process conditions. Ni is widely applied in alkaline water electrolysis, and it has been considered as a potential anode catalyst in CO 2 electrolysis. Here we compare the operation of electrolyzer cells with Ir and Ni anodes and demonstrate that, while Ir is stable under process conditions, the degradation of Ni leads to a rapid cell failure. This is caused by two parallel mechanisms: (i) a pH decrease of the anolyte to a near neutral value and (ii) the local chemical environment developing at the anode (i.e., high carbonate concentration). The latter is detrimental for zero-gap electrolyzer cells only, but the first mechanism is universal, occurring in any kind of CO 2 electrolyzer after prolonged operation with recirculated anolyte.

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“…Pt, Ir in proton exchange Membranes [19,50] Pt used as cathode catalyst for hydrogen evolution and Ir used as anode catalyst for oxygen evolution as catalyst There is some dissipation on the recycling side. Due to its corrosion resistance and very rare allergic reaction this is a desirable material to use in the body.…”

Section: Electrolysersmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Electrolysers for hydrogen production are another technology that is being deployed worldwide on the tens of MW scale. PEM based electrolysers also use PGM group metals such as Pt and Ir [19,50]. The demand for these metals will grow at a rapid rate with the further uptake of this technology for hydrogen production from renewable electricity sources such as solar PV and wind generators [169].…”

Section: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (Fcevs)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

et al. 2021

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The major applications of PGMs are as catalysts in automotive industry, petroleum refining, environmental (gas remediation), industrial chemical production (e.g., ammonia production, fine chemicals), electronics, and medical fields. As the next generation energy technologies for hydrogen production, such as electrolysers and fuel cells for stationary and transport applications, become mature, the demand for PGMs is expected to further increase. Reserves and annual production of Ru, Rh, Pd, Ir, and Pt have been determined and reported. Based on currently available resources, there is around 200 years lifetime based on current demand for all PGMs, apart from Pd, which may be closer to 100 years. Annual primary production of 190 t/a for Pt and 217 t/a for Pd, in combination with recycling of 65.4 t/a for Pt and 97.2 t/a for Pd, satisfies current demand. By far, the largest demand for PGMs is for all forms of catalysis, with the largest demand in auto catalysis. In fact, the biggest driver of demand and price for Pt, Pd, and Rh, in particular, is auto emission regulation, which has driven auto-catalyst design. Recovery of PGMs through recycling is generally good, but some catalytic processes, particularly auto-catalysis, result in significant dissipation. In the US, about 70% of the recycling stream from the end-of-life vehicles is a significant source of global secondary PGMs recovered from spent auto-catalyst. The significant use of PGMs in the large global auto industry is likely to continue, but the long-term transition towards electric vehicles will alter demand profiles.

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Is iridium demand a potential bottleneck in the realization of large-scale PEM water electrolysis?

Cited by 209 publications

References 16 publications

On the Durability of Iridium‐Based Electrocatalysts toward the Oxygen Evolution Reaction under Acid Environment

On the Durability of Iridium‐Based Electrocatalysts toward the Oxygen Evolution Reaction under Acid Environment

Local Chemical Environment Governs Anode Processes in CO₂ Electrolyzers

Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

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Is iridium demand a potential bottleneck in the realization of large-scale PEM water electrolysis?

Cited by 209 publications

References 16 publications

On the Durability of Iridium‐Based Electrocatalysts toward the Oxygen Evolution Reaction under Acid Environment

On the Durability of Iridium‐Based Electrocatalysts toward the Oxygen Evolution Reaction under Acid Environment

Local Chemical Environment Governs Anode Processes in CO2 Electrolyzers

Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

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Product

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Local Chemical Environment Governs Anode Processes in CO₂ Electrolyzers