“…It is also a better verbal IQ estimate in lower SES and minority populations (Strauss et al 2006). Tasks measuring attention/executive function were the (1) Controlled Oral Word Association Task (Benton, 1968) assessing flexibility of verbal thought processes and the ability to update working memory (number of correct words produced for phonemic (2 categoriesFletters 'F' and 'S') and semantic categories (2 categoriesF'animals' and 'fruits and vegetables'), 1 min per category); sensitivity and specificity for both indices are reliable in discriminating controls from those with impaired frontal function (sensitivity of 88 and 100% has been reported for phonemic and semantic categories, respectively) (Lezak, 1995); (2) digit span (standardized scores based on the sum of raw scores for both forward and backward tests) and letter-number sequencing subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III; Wechsler, 1997) assessing attentional capacity and verbal working memory; both subtests have adequate sensitivity and specificity (Lezak, 1995); (3) Symbol Digit Modalities Test (Smith, 1982) assessing attentional capacity (written; number of correct responses in 90 s; possessing ample sensitivity (approximately 80%) in detecting brain injury and learning disorders) (Lezak, 1995); (4) Trail Making Test (Reitan, 1955) assessing visual motor tracking, cognitive flexibility, and planning (trails A and B are very sensitive to cognitive decline and differentiate controls from both mild and severe head trauma patients; sensitivity of 77 and 79% has been reported for trails A and B, respectively) (O'Donnell et al, 1984;Lezak, 1995); (5) Mazes subtest from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III (Wechsler, 1987) assessing planning and sustained attention (this subtest is a 'satisfactory substitute for longer adult tests such as the Porteus mazes' in assessing executive functioning for most clinical purposes; (we used scaled scores based on norms for the highest (16 years) age) (Lezak, 1995); (6) Wisconsin Card Sort Test 3 (Berg, 1948) computerized version (Heaton, 1999) assessing set shifting and planning (specificity for the Wisconsin Card Sort Test is reported to be low, however it is very sensitive to the effects of frontal damage); and the (7) Color-Word Stroop Task (Golden, 1978), an index of directed attention and cognitive flexibility (the Color-Word Stroop is sensitive to both mild and severe frontal lobe impairment, differentiating those with learning disabilities or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity disorder from controls (eg, sensitivity, 89%)) (Homack and Riccio, 2004;Lezak, 1995). Two newly developed tasks of executive function were also included in this NP battery, and although more studies are needed to test their validity, recent reports have provided evidence for their utility in disting...…”