Irrigation and the Rise of the State in Hunza: A Case for the Hydraulic Hypothesis

Abstract

The former princely state of Hunza (now part of Pakistan's Northern Areas District) commands one of the largest and most complex irrigation systems in the whole of the western Karakoram mountain range. Built during the 18th century, Hunza's hydraulic works contributed significantly to the emergence of this small Central Asian state. Few writers, however, have explored the role of irrigation in Hunza's political evolution. Müller-Stellrecht (1981:55) has made some passing observations about the economic importance of irrigation in her paper on traditional Hunzakut society, Kreutzmann (1988) has provided some historical facts concerning the building of the canals and the present-day water distribution system in Hunza, while the French geographer Charles (1985) presents a significant body of data on Hunza's hydraulic works, but entirely from a physical perspective. In this paper, which is based on ethnohistorical data gathered during field research in Hunza, in 1990 and 1991, I examine the role of irrigation in the process of state formation in Hunza.

Adaptation Strategies to Address Challenges of Traditional Agricultural Water Management in the Upper Indus Basin

“…Water is diverted from snow and glaciers in all study areas; in addition, river water is used in Ladakh and Shigar, and spring water in Shigar (MacDonald 1998;Schmidt 2004;Dame and N€ usser 2011;N€ usser et al 2012;Hill 2017). Many irrigation canals are centuries old, and new ones have been established in recent decades to cater for increasing demand (Sidky 2008;Schmidt 2004). The system is traditional technology incorporating sociocultural and technical components (Gupta and Tiwari 2002).…”

Agricultural water management challenges in the Hunza River Basin: Is a solar water pump an alternative option?*

“…In central Hunza, historically a very small‐scale irrigation network consisting of the Baltit‐ill, Altit‐gotsil and Hamachi which drained water to Baltit, Altit and Ganesh villages existed. Crops were cultivated by draining glacier and snow meltwater through a natural drainage system (Sidky, 1997). Later, the irrigation systems were established, upgraded and extended under several rulers.…”

“…For example, during the Mir Silim Khan regime (1790‐1824) highly ambitious projects (e.g. Haligan‐gotsil , Samarqand and Ahmadabad‐gotsil) were initiated, diverting meltwater by canals to stone tanks and used to irrigate previously barren lands (Sidky, 1997).…”

“…Irrigation earlier was effected through small kuhls , constructed and maintained jointly by farmers and village officials, which carried meltwater through a crude intake structure (Velde, 1989). Equal distribution was then ensured through a traditional water management system by the village headman ( trangfa ) and canal supervisor ( darago ) (Sidky, 1997). Some 221 kuhls supplying irrigation water in the Gilgit district were identified by WAPDA, Pakistan, however information on their efficacy is lacking (Velde, 1989).…”

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“…With the enlargement of irrigated areas, the Mir's income and power increased, partly through the imposition of taxes (Staley 1969, 233ff. ;SidKy 1997KreutzMann 1989, 53). The expansion of the irrigation systems had already decreased over the last decades of the Mirs' rule (AKRSP 1987, 31).…”