Iron Oxide Nanoparticles as Imaging and Therapeutic Agents for Atherosclerosis

Abstract

Atherosclerosis is the major cause of cardiovascular diseases and is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as potential diagnostic and therapeutic agents for a wide range of conditions. To date, the theranostic applications of iron oxide nanoparticles have been studied mainly in cancer, but atherosclerosis has not received the same attention. Therefore, it appears appropriate to review the current and future applications of iron oxide nanoparticles for the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis. This review will first discuss current imaging techniques for the diagnosis of atherosclerosis as well as their limitations. It will then discuss the role of nanotechnology for molecular imaging of atherosclerosis and the benefits of this approach as well as reviewing current developments in the field including single, bi-, and tri-modal imaging. Next, it will discuss the role of nanotechnology for therapies of atherosclerosis with a focus on nanotheranostics, concluding with a look at the challenges faced by nanoparticle-based imaging and therapy of atherosclerosis as well as a look at future prospects.

Design and Fabrication of Environmentally Responsive Nanoparticles for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

“…However, it is important to acknowledge the current limitations of contrast agents, including extended scanning times, rapid clearance through the kidneys, and potential toxicity. 116 Hydrodentical has enhanced gadolinium chelates (gadolinium chelates are the most common CAs in clinical MRI). The relaxation measurement properties of the study showed that this can enhance the relaxation ability of CAs by a factor of 12 by forming a complex equilibrium between polymer chain elastodynamics and water osmotic pressure.…”

Targeting the Microenvironment of Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Plaques: An Emerging Diagnosis and Therapy Strategy for Atherosclerosis

“…To achieve the specific targeting of the characteristics that are correlated with plaque vulnerability, functionalized nanoparticles are prepared and modified with ligands that show specific binding to overexpression biomarkers. [ 74 ] In the vulnerable plaque microenvironment, a number of targets, such as overactivation of cells, overexpression of surface molecules, oversecretion of enzymes or cytokines, and neovascularization, have been exploited to design molecular imaging probes for visualizing the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaques. Based on the perspective of vulnerable plaque composition, we summarized specific biomarkers that have been employed for active targeting imaging as follows: a) monocytes/macrophages; b) foam cells; c) inflammatory components; d) neovascularization; and e) extracellular matrix (see Table 1 ).…”

“…To achieve the specific targeting of the characteristics that are correlated with plaque vulnerability, functionalized nanoparticles are prepared and modified with ligands that show specific binding to overexpression biomarkers. [74] In the vulnerable plaque microenvironment, a number of targets, such as overactivation of cells, overexpression of surface molecules, oversecretion of enzymes or cytokines, and neovascularization, have been exploited to design molecular imaging probes for Adv. Mater.…”

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering

“…These new approaches are increasingly based on molecular understanding of the disease, allowing specific nanomedicine-based molecular imaging and therapy [ 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 ]. Of particular interest are IONPs that can be used as transport vehicles for diagnostic or therapeutic agents through specific surface coating and functionalization, thus enabling site-specific and targeted delivery [ 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 ]. Meanwhile, there are numerous studies on NP-based imaging of plaques [ 131 , 132 ].…”