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Importance Despite long-standing interest in the association of psychiatric disorders with intelligence, few population-based studies of psychiatric disorders have assessed intelligence. Objectives To investigate the association of fluid intelligence with past-year and lifetime psychiatric disorders, disorder age-of-onset, and disorder severity in a nationally-representative sample of U.S. adolescents. Design Dual-frame national sample of adolescents ascertained from schools and households from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement, collected 2001–2004. Setting Face-to-face household interviews with adolescents and questionnaires from parents. Participants The sample included 10,073 adolescents with valid data on fluid intelligence. Exposures DSM-IV mental disorders were assessed with the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview, and included a broad range of fear, distress, behavior, substance use and other disorders. Disorder severity was measured with the Sheehan Disability Scale. Main Outcomes Fluid intelligence quotient (IQ) measured with Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, normed within the sample by six-month age groups. Results Lower mean IQ was observed among adolescents with past-year bipolar disorder (predicted Mean [M]=94.2, p<0.01), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (M=96.3, p<0.01), oppositional defiant disorder (M=97.3, p<0.01), conduct disorder (M=97.1, p=0.02) substance disorders (M=96.5–97.6, p=0.02 to <0.01) and specific phobia (M=97.1, p<0.01) after adjustment for a wide range of potential confounders. Intelligence was not associated with post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders other than specific phobia, and was positively associated with major depression. Associations of fluid intelligence with lifetime disorders that had remitted were attenuated compared to past-year disorders, with the exception of separation anxiety disorder. Across disorders, higher disorder severity was associated with lower fluid intelligence. Conclusions Numerous psychiatric disorders are associated with reductions in fluid intelligence; associations are generally small in magnitude. Stronger associations of current than past disorders with intelligence suggest that active symptoms of psychopathology interfere with cognitive functioning, although longitudinal studies are needed to determine the extent to which changes in fluid intelligence precede or follow the onset of psychiatric disorders. Early identification and treatment of children with mental disorders in school settings is critical to promote academic achievement and long-term success.
Importance Despite long-standing interest in the association of psychiatric disorders with intelligence, few population-based studies of psychiatric disorders have assessed intelligence. Objectives To investigate the association of fluid intelligence with past-year and lifetime psychiatric disorders, disorder age-of-onset, and disorder severity in a nationally-representative sample of U.S. adolescents. Design Dual-frame national sample of adolescents ascertained from schools and households from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement, collected 2001–2004. Setting Face-to-face household interviews with adolescents and questionnaires from parents. Participants The sample included 10,073 adolescents with valid data on fluid intelligence. Exposures DSM-IV mental disorders were assessed with the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview, and included a broad range of fear, distress, behavior, substance use and other disorders. Disorder severity was measured with the Sheehan Disability Scale. Main Outcomes Fluid intelligence quotient (IQ) measured with Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, normed within the sample by six-month age groups. Results Lower mean IQ was observed among adolescents with past-year bipolar disorder (predicted Mean [M]=94.2, p<0.01), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (M=96.3, p<0.01), oppositional defiant disorder (M=97.3, p<0.01), conduct disorder (M=97.1, p=0.02) substance disorders (M=96.5–97.6, p=0.02 to <0.01) and specific phobia (M=97.1, p<0.01) after adjustment for a wide range of potential confounders. Intelligence was not associated with post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders other than specific phobia, and was positively associated with major depression. Associations of fluid intelligence with lifetime disorders that had remitted were attenuated compared to past-year disorders, with the exception of separation anxiety disorder. Across disorders, higher disorder severity was associated with lower fluid intelligence. Conclusions Numerous psychiatric disorders are associated with reductions in fluid intelligence; associations are generally small in magnitude. Stronger associations of current than past disorders with intelligence suggest that active symptoms of psychopathology interfere with cognitive functioning, although longitudinal studies are needed to determine the extent to which changes in fluid intelligence precede or follow the onset of psychiatric disorders. Early identification and treatment of children with mental disorders in school settings is critical to promote academic achievement and long-term success.
Research on risk factors of criminal and violent behavior is well established, but much less is known about the more complicated field of protective factors and mechanisms against the onset, persistence, or aggravation of antisocial behavior in young people. This chapter contains a brief overview of concepts and research designs in this field. Then empirical findings are reviewed that show various candidates for a promotive or buffering protective effect: individual variables (cognitive abilities, information processing, temperament, and biological characteristics), family variables (emotional bonding, appropriate parenting behavior, parental interest in education, and socioeconomic status); school factors (good achievement, bonding to school, and a positive educational climate), peer‐group factors (affiliation with nondeviant friends, some social isolation), and community factors (a not‐deprived but cohesive neighborhood). More long‐term research on protective factors and mechanisms is needed. This should include a stronger link to research on experimental prevention and on intraindividual changes.
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