Iodine and Iodine Deficiency: A Comprehensive Review of a Re-Emerging Issue

Hatch-McChesney, Adrienne; Lieberman, Harris R.

doi:10.3390/nu14173474

Cited by 60 publications

(34 citation statements)

References 41 publications

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“…The element iodine was more or less simultaneously discovered around 1811 by Bernard Courtois, Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Sir Humphry Davy, and an adult healthy thyroid gland contains around 12–16 mg (0.5–1 mg iodine/g thyroid) [ 24 ]. Most foods and beverages have a low iodine content in their native state, while seafood, certain brown algae (‘kelp’), sea fish and seaweed as well as eggs, milk products, bread and food prepared with iodinated salt are the major sources of nutritional intake.…”

Section: Thyroid Function and Iodine Statusmentioning

confidence: 99%

Selenium, Iodine and Iron–Essential Trace Elements for Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Metabolism

Köhrle

2023

IJMS

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The adequate availability and metabolism of three essential trace elements, iodine, selenium and iron, provide the basic requirements for the function and action of the thyroid hormone system in humans, vertebrate animals and their evolutionary precursors. Selenocysteine-containing proteins convey both cellular protection along with H2O2-dependent biosynthesis and the deiodinase-mediated (in-)activation of thyroid hormones, which is critical for their receptor-mediated mechanism of cellular action. Disbalances between the thyroidal content of these elements challenge the negative feedback regulation of the hypothalamus–pituitary–thyroid periphery axis, causing or facilitating common diseases related to disturbed thyroid hormone status such as autoimmune thyroid disease and metabolic disorders. Iodide is accumulated by the sodium-iodide-symporter NIS, and oxidized and incorporated into thyroglobulin by the hemoprotein thyroperoxidase, which requires local H2O2 as cofactor. The latter is generated by the dual oxidase system organized as ‘thyroxisome’ at the surface of the apical membrane facing the colloidal lumen of the thyroid follicles. Various selenoproteins expressed in thyrocytes defend the follicular structure and function against life-long exposure to H2O2 and reactive oxygen species derived therefrom. The pituitary hormone thyrotropin (TSH) stimulates all processes required for thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion and regulates thyrocyte growth, differentiation and function. Worldwide deficiencies of nutritional iodine, selenium and iron supply and the resulting endemic diseases are preventable with educational, societal and political measures.

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Section: Thyroid Function and Iodine Statusmentioning

confidence: 99%

Selenium, Iodine and Iron–Essential Trace Elements for Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Metabolism

Köhrle

2023

IJMS

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“…We propose the use of such a method is necessary in light of ongoing population growth and climate change. Iodine content changes are apparent in agricultural and food preparation practices [18,19,36]. All in all, the approximate estimation of iodine intake in the present study substantially limits the generalizability of its findings.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 60%

“…Moreover, this finding may indicate that the iodine content of food items included in our sIFFQ possibly reflects the estimated iodine intake during the period of our study (2018-2020). However, our approximate estimate of iodine intake cannot be generalized to the entire population and may not reflect current food processing or agricultural practices in Israel or elsewhere [36]. It may be desirable to develop a rapidly adaptable and regional electronic tool for detecting iodine intake in public.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Can Mild-to-Moderate Iodine Deficiency during Pregnancy Alter Thyroid Function? Lessons from a Mother–Newborn Cohort

et al. 2022

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Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy has substantial hormonal consequences, such as fetal brain damage. Data on the potential effects of mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency on the thyroid function of pregnant women and their newborns are scarce and divergent. We investigated the association between iodine intake in pregnancy and maternal and neonatal thyroid function in a region with mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency. Pregnant women’s iodine status was evaluated using an iodine food frequency questionnaire, serum thyroglobulin (Tg), and urinary iodine concentration (UIC). Neonatal thyrotropin (nTSH) values were measured after birth. Obstetrics and anthropometric data were also collected. Among the 178 women (median age 31 years) included in the study, median (interquartile range) estimated dietary iodine intake, Tg and UIC were 179 (94–268) μg/day, 18 (11–33) μg/L, and 60 (41–95) μg/L, respectively. There was a significant inverse association of iodine intake with Tg values among the study population (β = −0.2, F = 7.5, p < 0.01). Women with high free triiodothyronine (FT3) values were more likely to exhibit an estimated iodine intake below the estimated average requirement (160 μg/day, odds ratio [OR] = 2.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1–6.4; p = 0.04) and less likely to consume iodine-containing supplements (OR = 0.3, 95% CI, 0.1–0.8; p = 0.01). It is possible that thyroid function may be affected by iodine insufficiency during pregnancy in regions with mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency. The relatively small sample size of the studied population warrants further investigation.

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“…Assessment of iodine status with UIC in spot urine samples is a recommended marker of population iodine status ( 4 , 14 , 31 ) . Urinary iodine excretion portrays dietary iodine intake because more than 90 % of dietary iodine is excreted in the urine, and the vast majority within 24 h ( 32 ) .…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Iodine nutrition with North Atlantic living: the Faroese adolescents

Johannesen

Andersen

et al. 2023

J Nutr Sci

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Iodine nutrition is critical for human health. While iodine excretion was low within the recommended range among adult Faroese, younger generations tend to abandon local foods. Such changes raise a concern about iodine intake, which led us to perform this first study of iodine nutrition among teenagers in the North Atlantic islands. We used samples from a nationwide collection of urine samples in 14-year-olds following iodine fortification of salt in 2000. Urine was analysed for iodine and creatinine to adjust for dilution by iodine/creatinine, and a food frequency questionnaire was used to record the intake of iodine-rich foods. The 129 participants yielded a 90 % precision of the estimated iodine nutrition level. The median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) was 166 μg/l (bootstrapped 95 % confidence interval 156–184 μg/l). The median creatinine-adjusted UIC was 132 μg/g (bootstrapped 95 % CI 120–138 μg/g). Fish and whale meat dinners were more frequent among residents of villages compared with the capital: median fish dinners, 3 v. 2 per week (P = 0⋅001), and whale meat, 1 v. 0⋅4 per month (P < 0⋅001). UIC decreased with fewer fish dinners (P = 0⋅03). Our study demonstrated that Faroese teenagers were iodine-replete. The changing dietary habits emphasise the need for continuous monitoring of iodine nutrition and surveying iodine deficiency disorders.

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Iodine and Iodine Deficiency: A Comprehensive Review of a Re-Emerging Issue

Cited by 60 publications

References 41 publications

Selenium, Iodine and Iron–Essential Trace Elements for Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Metabolism

Selenium, Iodine and Iron–Essential Trace Elements for Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Metabolism

Can Mild-to-Moderate Iodine Deficiency during Pregnancy Alter Thyroid Function? Lessons from a Mother–Newborn Cohort

Iodine nutrition with North Atlantic living: the Faroese adolescents

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