Involvement of Opioid System and TRPM8/TRPA1 Channels in the Antinociceptive Effect of Spirulina platensis

Abstract

Spirulina platensis is a “super-food” and has attracted researchers’ attention due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and analgesic properties. Herein, we investigated the antinociceptive effects of Spirulina in different rodent behavior models of inflammatory pain. Male Swiss mice were treated with Spirulina (3–300 mg/kg, p.o.), indomethacin (10 mg/kg, p.o.), or vehicle (0.9% NaCl 10 mL/kg). Behavioral tests were performed with administration of acetic acid (0.6%, i.p.), formalin 2.7% (formaldehyde 1%, i.pl.), menthol (1.2 µmol/paw, i.pl.), cinnamaldehyde (10 nmol/paw, i.pl.), capsaicin (1.6 µg/paw, i.pl.), glutamate (20 µmol/paw, i.pl.), or naloxone (1 mg/kg, i.p.). The animals were also exposed to the rotarod and open field test to determine possible effects of Spirulina on locomotion and motor coordination. The quantitative phytochemical assays exhibited that Spirulina contains significant concentrations of total phenols and flavonoid contents, as well as it showed a powerful antioxidant effect with the highest scavenging activity. Oral administration of Spirulina completely inhibited the abdominal contortions induced by acetic acid (ED50 = 20.51 mg/kg). Spirulina treatment showed significant inhibition of formalin-induced nociceptive behavior during the inflammatory phase, and the opioid-selective antagonist markedly blocked this effect. Furthermore, our data indicate that the mechanisms underlying Spirulina analgesia appear to be related to its ability to modulate TRMP8 and TRPA1, but not by TRPV1 or glutamatergic system. Spirulina represents an orally active and safe natural analgesic that exhibits great therapeutic potential for managing inflammatory pain disorders.

A flavone from the ethyl acetate extract of Leea rubra leaves with DNA damage protection and antineoplastic activity

“…This compound exhibits a wide range of activities including antioxidant activity, antineoplastic activity, anti-diabetic activity and anti-inflammatory activity. The flavonoid compounds also displayed several other activities that are related to the central nervous system and numerous studies have suggested that the compound may be beneficial to protect against diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease [ 28 , 29 ]. To know the more biological activity of the isolated compound, we determined in vitro protection of oxidative damage on DNA as well as anti-proliferative activity on EAC cells.…”

An Overview: The Toxicity of Ageratina adenophora on Animals and Its Possible Interventions

“…In addition, another study reported that administration of phytocannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa improves the health and function of the gastrointestinal tract [ 102 ]. Freitas et al [ 103 ] also reported that Spirulina platensis is a safe natural analgesic that displays great therapeutic activity in inflammatory pain disorders. Therefore, this review revealed extensive research on some extracts and secondary metabolites extracted from A. adenophora and other sources that could be used for the treatment of toxicity induced by A. adenophora through intensive investigations and clinical trials.…”

Efficacy and Safety of Transcutaneous Electrical Acupoint Stimulation (TEAS) for Postoperative Pain in Laparoscopy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

“…In addition, pharmacological studies have shown that some medicinal plants are safe natural analgesics and have potential therapeutic advantages. For example, Molineria capitulata and Spirulina platensis have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and analgesic effects [ 15 , 16 ]. Bromelain is a natural drug to alleviate the symptoms of arthritis (including joint pain and stiffness) [ 17 ].…”