Investigating spatial distribution of fluoride in groundwater with respect to hydro-geochemical characteristics and associated probabilistic health risk in Baruipur block of West Bengal, India

Investigation of Groundwater Fluoride Dynamics in the Lower Gangetic Plain Including Natural Influences with Economic and Health Issues

“…About 10% of groundwater samples from the entire studied area are represented under the second group/class: 1.0 ≤ I i < 3.0 (moderate contamination factor) (pollution index ranged from 1 to 1.9) which is well supported by other studies. , Moreover, the pollution index represents the level of F – toxicity, which is significantly harmful to human health based on the groundwater contamination effects. The moderate contamination class of F – toxicity in groundwater was found to be extremely high in certain locations from the study area …”

“…The single factor pollution index has been done to evaluate the groundwater contamination with a special focus on F – , by the following equation I i = C i C o where I i represents the specific indices, C i signifies the toxic component concentration in groundwater and C o denotes the permissible concentration of the toxic contaminant set by the standard guidelines. The respective C o value for F – in drinking water is 1.5 mg/L. , Groundwater contamination factors are classified into 4 groups or classes: first group/class: I i < 1.0 (low contamination), second group/class: 1.0 ≤ I i < 3.0 (moderate contamination), third group/class: 3.0 ≤ I i < 6.0 (considerable contamination) and fourth group/class: I i ≥ 6.0 (high contamination). , …”

“…Twenty groundwater samples having F – concentration above the permissible limit (WHO recommended value >1.5 mg/L) were collected once again from both areas. The groundwater samples were collected in duplicates and stored in 250 mL plastic containers with and without the addition of 10% v/v nitric acid as a preservative . The acidified water samples were used for the estimation of calcium (Ca 2+ ) and iron (Fe) and samples were used for the estimation of other physicochemical parameters such as the potential of hydrogen (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrate (NO 3 – ), fluoride (F – ), chloride (Cl – ), carbonate (CO 3 2– ), bicarbonate (HCO 3 – ), sodium (Na + ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ), potassium (K + ), and sulfate (SO 4 2– ). , All the samples were transported to the laboratory and stored at 4 °C until further analysis …”

“…The concentrations of sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), and calcium (Ca 2+ ) were measured using a flame photometer (Model number: G-301, HPG System, Chandigarh). The detailed estimation method of F – and other physiochemical parameters are described in our earlier publications. , …”

“…According to Schoeller, the chloro-alkaline study represented a possible mechanism of ionic interaction responsible between groundwater and host/rock minerals. Inverse geochemical modeling is a mass balance simulation that defines chemical changes and chemical reactions. ,, …”