Introduction to a Resources Special Issue on Criticality of the Rare Earth Elements: Current and Future Sources and Recycling

Jowitt, Simon M.

doi:10.3390/resources7020035

Cited by 7 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…The quest for a circular economy focuses more on the processes of extraction, separation, and recovering rare-earth elements from the primary and secondary sources. 1 The rare-earth elements are acknowledged as supporting materials of modern technology. The demand for the production of these materials has made the efficiency of processes aimed at more attention to producing.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Continuous Extraction of Europium(III) by Ionic Liquid in the Rotating Disk Column with an Asymmetrical Structure Aimed at the Evaluation of Reactive Mass Transfer

2020

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In this study, the features of the solvent extraction technique were investigated to explore the potential of ionic liquid for extracting Eu(III) from aqueous solution. The transport process between the aqueous and organic phase was carried out in the rotating disk column with an asymmetrical structure and a continuous mode of operation. The utilization of Cyphos IL 104 as an ionic liquid in comparison with Cyanex272 extractant was evaluated for the extraction abilities in the recovering of Eu(III) under different conditions, including agitation speed, inlet aqueous, and solvent phase velocities. The degree of extraction and the mass-transfer rate were best when the agitation speed and the superficial velocities of aqueous and solvent phases were adjusted to 690 rpm, 0.831 mm/s, and 1.385 mm/s, respectively. The better efficiency was achieved using the ionic liquid with 0.02 mol/L concentration, 96.52% Eu(III) extraction in comparison to the same condition without the presence of ionic liquids with Cyanex272 (0.5 mol/L, 99.66%). With the analysis of the data, it was noted that the increase in the operating parameters has a positive influence on the holdup, degree of extraction, and mass-transfer rates. The percentage increase equal to 33.57% for overall mass-transfer coefficients was obtained with the increment of mixing in the column. The results showed that the mass transfer is associated with reactive resistance. The previous correlation did not explain the behavior of the system correctly in the reactive mode. Finally, the empirical models using the Sherwood number were developed to correlate the mass-transfer coefficient.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The quest for a circular economy focuses more on the processes of extraction, separation, and recovering rare-earth elements from the primary and secondary sources . The rare-earth elements are acknowledged as supporting materials of modern technology.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Continuous Extraction of Europium(III) by Ionic Liquid in the Rotating Disk Column with an Asymmetrical Structure Aimed at the Evaluation of Reactive Mass Transfer

2020

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“…They are increasingly used in defense and telecommunication systems, electronics, transportation, chemical catalysts, and medical applications. With increased concerns about climate change and energy independence, REE uses are expected to grow, especially with high demand for hybrid and electric cars and wind turbines (Jowitt, 2018;Market Analysis Report, 2021;Voncken, 2016; Figure 3).…”

Section: Rare Earth Element Usesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Ideas for increasing the supply include also designing microbes to efficiently separate the elements from the ore and even using extraterrestrial resources on the moon or Mars. While these new techniques require refining and are not currently economically viable, they may likely become feasible in the future with technological innovations and government support (Balaram, 2019;EPA, 2012;Jowitt, 2018;Market Analysis Report, 2021;Mastalerz et al, 2020;MiningDotCom, 2021; Science History Institute, 2021; U.S. Department of Defense, 2021).…”

Section: The Future Of Rare Earth Elementsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For instance, recycling 100,000 iPhones can salvage only about 11 kg of REEs. While the current recycling rate is less than 5%, reutilization has a potential for growth especially if supported by consumers and manufacturers (Balaram, 2019;Jowitt, 2018;Market Analysis Report, 2021;Science History Institute, 2021;Voncken, 2016).…”

Section: The Future Of Rare Earth Elementsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Rare Earth Elements: A brief overview

Drobniak

Mastalerz

2022

IJES

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Recent years have witnessed increasing awareness and interest in rare earth elements (REE). These several, usually unfamiliar elements, are key components of countless products used in our daily lives. Because of their use in many modern technologies, including those important for national security, the demand for REE grows, and so does the production, need to find their new sources and improve the extraction. This article provides an overview of REEs, their availability, production, and uses, and briefly discusses the future of these valuable and critical metals.

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Rare Metal (RM) and Rare Earth Element (REE) Resources: World Scenario with Special Reference to India

Krishnamurthy

2020

Journal of the Geological Society of India

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The RM (Li, Be, Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta, Th and U) and REE (Light Rare Earths and Heavy Rare Earths including Yttrium) are strategic and critical for sustaining a variety of industries such as nuclear, defence, information technology (IT) and green energy options (wind, solar, electric vehicles and others). The 2010 ‘Rare Earth’ crisis of the world, following China’s monopoly with over 80% share and export restrictions in the REE market, led to an exploration boom for REE all over the world including India. This led to a substantial increase in REE mineral resources (98 Mt of contained REO in 2015) outside China located in Canada (38 Mt), Greenland (39 Mt) and Africa (10.3 Mt) that represents a five-fold increase in resources (c.f. Paulick and Machacek, 2017). As per the 2019, USGS commodity survey, the world reserves of REE have been estimated at 120 Mt in countries such as China (44Mt), Brazil (22Mt), Vietnam (22 Mt), Russia (12 Mt), India (6.9 Mt) and others (13 Mt). At present world resources of RM and REE are adequate to cater the demands of the different industries. The constraints, however, appear to be not technical but mainly environmental and social issues.

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Introduction to a Resources Special Issue on Criticality of the Rare Earth Elements: Current and Future Sources and Recycling

Cited by 7 publications

References 18 publications

Continuous Extraction of Europium(III) by Ionic Liquid in the Rotating Disk Column with an Asymmetrical Structure Aimed at the Evaluation of Reactive Mass Transfer

Continuous Extraction of Europium(III) by Ionic Liquid in the Rotating Disk Column with an Asymmetrical Structure Aimed at the Evaluation of Reactive Mass Transfer

Rare Earth Elements: A brief overview

Rare Metal (RM) and Rare Earth Element (REE) Resources: World Scenario with Special Reference to India

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