Introduction: The Culturalization of Citizenship

The promise of the social contract: Muslim perspectives on the culturalization of citizenship and the demand to denounce violent extremism

“…A "good" citizen feels at home in Dutch society, is loyal to the nation-state, and endorses secular liberal values such as individual autonomy, gender equality, LGBT emancipation and freedom of speech. Paradoxically, these values are construed as "universal" and "typically Dutch" at the same time (Verkaaik 2009;Duyvendak 2011;Tonkens and Duyvendak 2016;Mepschen 2018).…”

“…This development can be observed across Western Europe (cf. Brown 2010), but the Dutch case can be seen as a particularly visible instance (Tonkens and Duyvendak 2016).…”

“…Scholars have critically addressed how the culturalization of citizenship contributes to the marginalization of Muslim minorities (Verkaaik 2009;Duyvendak 2011;Uitermark 2012;Mepschen 2016Mepschen , 2018Tonkens and Duyvendak 2016). With few exceptions (Uitermark 2012;Termeer 2016;Mepschen 2018), little attention has been paid to how Muslims challenge or uphold the discourses and practices through which they are marginalized.…”

Inclusive or Exclusive? How Contact with Host Nationals May Change Immigrants' Boundary Perceptions and Foster Identity Compatibility

“…Several interviewees mentioned that they did not "behave like Danes" as one explanation for lacking Danishness, revealing a restricted idea about what kind of behaviour one must embrace to qualify as a Dane. Together with the linguistic boundary marker, this reflects the notion that citizenship is culturalized, meaning that immigrants must shed certain ethnic, cultural, or religious characteristics to demonstrate their belonging to the host nation (Tonkens and Duyvendak 2016). Since using Arabic expressions or following some Islamic prescriptions were experienced as basic elements of their ethnoreligious identity, the consequence for these interviewees was that they could not see themselves, or be seen by others, as Danish.…”

“…As Slootman and Duyvendak (2015: 152) comment with reference to the situation in the Netherlands, "Belonging to and identification with a nation are regarded as zero-sum attributes and singular in nature … which is why loyalties to other countries and cultures are regarded as a threat to emotional attachment to the [host nation]." This exclusive understanding of national identification is evidenced in a recent "retreat from multiculturalism" (Joppke 2004) and concomitant "culturalization of citizenship" (Tonkens and Duyvendak 2016) by which several European leaders have deemed it counter-productive to support the maintenance and development of minority cultures. The claim is that initiatives in this regard have only worked to create parallel societies, at the expense of immigrants adapting to the majority culture and adopting the mainstream identity.…”