Introduction: how does race ‘count’ in fighting discrimination in Europe?

Understanding the contemporary race–migration nexus

“…For instance, although there is more differentiation within groups, racial inequalities persist in income, access to jobs, health and education (Institute for Race Relations 2015). At the same time, in mainland Europe, the question of race has been configured quite differently, from the 'race-blind' republican tradition of France, to the focus on ethnicity rather than race in Germany, in which there is an avoidance of race as an analytical concept (Grigolo, Hermanin, and Möschel 2011). However, across the EU the landscape and content of migration debates has been altered significantly.…”

The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity

“…Both are socially constructed and are not permanent over time and space; on the contrary, they adapt and change (Waters 2002 ;Brady and Kaplan 2009 ;Morning 2011 ). The main reason of this difference, which applies particularly to continental European countries, is the involvement of many European states in the Holocaust (Suk 2007 ;Grigolo et al 2011 ). In the European context, the emergence of race and ethnicity is a natural result of the migratory infl ows and past colonial expansionism.…”

“…In the US, race and ethnicity are used in legislation and in statistics in order to shape antidiscrimination measures. Immediately after the end of WWII, UNESCO condemned through four different declarations, the notion of race in its scientifi cbiological meaning (Banton 2002 ;Grigolo et al 2011 ). Compared to the American context, the situation is quite different in Europe.…”

“…In the European context, the emergence of race and ethnicity is a natural result of the migratory infl ows and past colonial expansionism. An example of this kind of policies is the Racial Equality Directive (RED) adopted in 2000 by the Council of the European Union (Grigolo et al 2011 ). The main reason of this difference, which applies particularly to continental European countries, is the involvement of many European states in the Holocaust (Suk 2007 ;Grigolo et al 2011 ).…”

“…Compared to the American context, the situation is quite different in Europe. To overcome the absence of racial and ethnic statistics, often European countries use "nationality" or "citizenship" as "proxies for race" (Grigolo et al 2011(Grigolo et al : 1640. The racial and ethnic categorization performed immediately before and during World War II (WWII), can explain the reluctance of many continental European countries in using categorizations based on race and ethnicity that are commonly used in the US and UK.…”