Intrauterine Growth Retarded Progeny of Pregnant Sows Fed High Protein:Low Carbohydrate Diet Is Related to Metabolic Energy Deficit

Abstract

High and low protein diets fed to pregnant adolescent sows led to intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). To explore underlying mechanisms, sow plasma metabolite and hormone concentrations were analyzed during different pregnancy stages and correlated with litter weight (LW) at birth, sow body weight and back fat thickness. Sows were fed diets with low (6.5%, LP), adequate (12.1%, AP), and high (30%, HP) protein levels, made isoenergetic by adjusted carbohydrate content. At −5, 24, 66, and 108 days post coitum (dpc) fasted blood was collected. At 92 dpc, diurnal metabolic profiles were determined. Fasted serum urea and plasma glucagon were higher due to the HP diet. High density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC), %HDLC and cortisol were reduced in HP compared with AP sows. Lowest concentrations were observed for serum urea and protein, plasma insulin-like growth factor-I, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and progesterone in LP compared with AP and HP sows. Fasted plasma glucose, insulin and leptin concentrations were unchanged. Diurnal metabolic profiles showed lower glucose in HP sows whereas non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentrations were higher in HP compared with AP and LP sows. In HP and LP sows, urea concentrations were 300% and 60% of AP sows, respectively. Plasma total cholesterol was higher in LP than in AP and HP sows. In AP sows, LW correlated positively with insulin and insulin/glucose and negatively with glucagon/insulin at 66 dpc, whereas in HP sows LW associated positively with NEFA. In conclusion, IUGR in sows fed high protein∶low carbohydrate diet was probably due to glucose and energy deficit whereas in sows with low protein∶high carbohydrate diet it was possibly a response to a deficit of indispensable amino acids which impaired lipoprotein metabolism and favored maternal lipid disposal.

In vitro effect of leptin on anterior pituitary cells LH secretory activity during early pregnancy in pig

“…In humans and rodents serum leptin levels were shown to increase during pregnancy due to enhanced leptin synthesis by both maternal and fetal adipose tissues as well as by trophoblast (Henson and Castracane 2000). In pregnant sows, however, serum leptin concentration was not sensitive to body weight enhancement (Estienne et al 2003, Metges et al 2012) what indicates a differences in leptin physiology between species.…”

Gender-specific early postnatal catch-up growth after intrauterine growth retardation by food restriction in swine with obesity/leptin resistance

“…Asymmetrical IUGR is often associated with inadequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the foetus by maternal or placental factors (Wu et al 2006, Vuguin 2007. In swine, like in other species, IUGR is mainly related to metabolic energy deficit (Metges et al 2012). Occurrence of IUGR has also been associated with deficiencies in the physiological gestation-associated hyperlipidemia; in such case, the supply of cholesterol and triglycerides necessary for the adequate development of foetus is not fulfilled (Ruwe et al 1991, Sattar et al 1999, Cetin et al 2002, Metges et al 2012.…”

“…In swine, like in other species, IUGR is mainly related to metabolic energy deficit (Metges et al 2012). Occurrence of IUGR has also been associated with deficiencies in the physiological gestation-associated hyperlipidemia; in such case, the supply of cholesterol and triglycerides necessary for the adequate development of foetus is not fulfilled (Ruwe et al 1991, Sattar et al 1999, Cetin et al 2002, Metges et al 2012. Surprisingly, the excess of cholesterol and triglycerides also causes alterations in foetal growth (Woollett 2005(Woollett , 2011.…”

Maternal high-protein diet during pregnancy, but not during suckling, induced altered expression of an increasing number of hepatic genes in adult mouse offspring

“…ketogenesis [4][5][6], and may influence the developmental programming of adult metabolic disorders by controlling excessive body fat accretion during pregnancy [7,8].…”

“…Systolic blood pressure increase and cardiac remodeling both caused by maternal energy restriction could be ameliorated when the energy-restricted diet contained twice the protein concentration of the control diet [16]. IUGR caused by a maternal HP diet seems to be associated with maternal glucose and energy deficit, because the relative lack of carbohydrates/energy-induced lipolysis and likely enhanced rates of gluconeogenesis, which together with increased urea synthesis is very energy demanding [6,17,18]. In contrast, maternal low-protein (LP) diet-induced IUGR seems to be caused by insufficient supply of indispensable amino acids concurrent with a glucose surplus in the diet associated with reduced pregnancy-related BM gain, increased insulin sensitivity and body fatness, and impaired lipoprotein metabolism in the dam [6,17].…”