“…Hybrid actors have become increasingly prominent in the MENA, both on a local level and in regional and international relations, particularly since the Arab uprisings (Ali, 2020;Del Sarto, Malmvig, & Soler i Lecha, 2019;Durac, 2015). On a local level, many MENA countries experienced an erosion of state capacities due to internal turmoil, regional conflict and external interventions (Collombier, Malmvig, Clausen, Hassan, & Khorto, 2018;Colombo, Dessi, & Ntousas, 2017).…”