Integrating ecological and cultural values toward conservation and utilization of shrine/temple forests as urban green space in Japanese cities

Abstract

In Japan, forests associated with shrines and temples are recognized as important components of urban green space, which can potentially function as centers for ecosystem conservation in rapidly urbanizing Japanese cities. In addition to their ecological value, shrine/temple forests have social value, providing recreational and aesthetic needs to residents of urban areas. We review the historical development of shrine/temple forests in Japan and discuss current conservation issues from both ecological and sociological perspectives. Generally, shrine forests are minimally managed and public access is discouraged, whereas temple forests are intensively managed for public display. Shrines tend to be spatially scattered across the landscape but associated with specific geographical features, whereas temples tend to be clustered. Their wide and random distribution in urban areas suggests that shrine forests can potentially be used as stepping stones in the urban green space network, whereas spatially clustered temple forests can be integrated to form large areas of green space. Species diversity of shrine/temple forests declines with decreasing area. The distribution pattern of species is not completely nested, indicating that although conservation of large forest fragments may be effective for maintaining landscape-level biodiversity, smaller forest fragments and adjacent precincts are sometimes significant because rare species occasionally inhabit them. Active management and ecological restoration, such as removal of invasive species, are also important to maintain the desirable near-natural forest conditions. A working group including the owner, community, regional government, and ecologists should be involved in creating an effective, longterm management plan. Because social and cultural values are diverse, basic ecological studies of shrine/temple forests would contribute a scientific basis that fosters public confidence in the process.

Aesthetic and Spiritual Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Sacred Sites

“…Sacred sites have often been looked at separately from other natural areas because of the assumed higher importance placed on cultural and social benefits [33,36,53]. However, compared to the literature on rural sacred areas, there has been only limited consideration of urban sacred sites as green spaces that can offer a range of ecosystem services to urban residents.…”

“…However, these gardens were far from pristine. This may be the case in Japan, where Shinto sacred urban forests are the object of nature worship, being left as natural as possible [33]. This may however be linked to the particular religion of the respondent.…”

Is there no urban forestry in the developing world?

“…How can these trees be identified and conserved in advance of urban development? Additionally, religious sites generally are frequently surrounded by trees or forests (Ishii et al, 2010). Thus, although the trees or forests per se might not be venerated, tree and green spaces are vital components of the overall experience at religious sites, and so combining these cultural, religious and aesthetic needs can potentially provide a stronger basis for the promotion and care of urban trees and forests.…”

The Importance of Multi-Scale Temporal and Spatial Management for Cemetery Trees in Malmö, Sweden

“…The necessity of creating long-term targets and goals for urban greenspace management was indicated previously [13,74]. Long-term planning and management are necessary for dealing with invasive pests and diseases [9], ensuring the maintenance of ecological and cultural values [75], and promoting age and size class diversity [76]. However, it was noted, both in cemetery tree management and in the management of urban forests in general, that management is often short-term and reactive (e.g., [25,77,78]).…”