“…For a word the reader has never seen, the reader recodes—i.e., produces pronunciations for letter units—and uses the resulting spelling pronunciation to locate a phonological entry in the lexicon (Elbro, de Jong, Houter, & Nielsen, 2012). This means that low-frequency words are more likely to require recoding than high frequency words, a fact that explains word frequency (i.e., surface frequency for derived words) effects in studies of children’s reading accuracy (e.g., Carlisle & Katz, 2006; Deacon, Whalen, & Kirby, 2011; Goodwin et al, 2013; Steenbeek-Planting, van Bon, & Schreuder, 2013, in Dutch; Waters, Seidenberg, & Bruck, 1984). This also explains word frequency interactions in which word or child characteristics only affect accuracy for low-frequency words (e.g., Waters et al, 1984).…”