Insight into the Technical Qualification of the Sonocogreen CaO/Clinoptilolite Nanocomposite (CaO_(NP)/Clino) as an Advanced Delivery System for 5-Fluorouracil: Equilibrium and Cytotoxicity

Abstract

Clinoptilolite as a natural zeolite was integrated with green CaO nanoparticles forming the green nanocomposite CaO(NP)/Clino. The CaO(NP)/Clino composite was assessed as a potential carrier for 5-fluorouracil (5-FL) drug. The CaO(NP)/Clino carrier achieved an enhanced 5-FL loading capacity of 305.3 mg/g as compared to 163 mg/g for pure clinoptilolite. The kinetics of the 5-FL loading follow the properties of the pseudo-first-order model, while the equilibrium results are related to the Langmuir isotherm. Therefore, the 5-FL loading processes occurred in the monolayer formed by homogeneous active loading receptors on the surface of the CaO(NP)/Clino carrier. The Gaussian energy of the 5-FL loading reaction (9.2 KJ/mol) reflected the dominant effect for the chemical mechanisms, especially the zeolitic ion-exchange mechanisms. Additionally, the thermodynamic parameters suggested endothermic, feasible, and spontaneous properties for the occurred 5-FL loading reactions. The release profile of 5-FL from CaO(NP)/Clino has continuous and long properties (150 h) at pH 1.2 (gastric fluid) and pH 7.4 (intestinal fluid). The kinetic studies of the release reactions show considerable agreement with Higuchi, Hixson–Crowell, and Korsmeyer–Peppas models. Such high fitting results and the diffusion exponent values (0.49 at pH 1.2 and 0.48 at pH 7.4) reflected the release properties of the Fickian transport behavior involving complex erosion and diffusion mechanisms. The cytotoxicity study of CaO(NP)/Clino on colorectal normal cells (CCD-18Co) declare the safe and biocompatible effect as a carrier for the 5-FL drug. Additionally, CaO(NP)/Clino as a carrier causes considerable enhancement for the cytotoxic effect of the loaded 5-FL drug on colon cancer cells (HCT-116).

An Innovative Approach to a Potential Neuroprotective Sideritis scardica-Clinoptilolite Phyto-Nanocarrier: In Vitro Investigation and Evaluation

“…According to the EDX spectra (Figure 7B), the clinoptilolite sample is composed of Si (32.31%), Al (7.44%), O (52.43%), K (3.17%), Ca (2.33%), and Fe (0.62%), corroborating the data reported in the literature [102].…”

“…The average mean particle size (Table 4) and distribution profile of all samples (Figure 8) were studied using the DLS method. According to the EDX spectra (Figure 7B), the clinoptilolite sample is composed of Si (32.31%), Al (7.44%), O (52.43%), K (3.17%), Ca (2.33%), and Fe (0.62%), corroborating the data reported in the literature [102].…”

“…Additionally, it appears that clinoptilolite nanoparticles are loaded into fibrous structures, presumably due to the mechanical forces under employed experimental conditions. On the other hand, SEM indicates a size decrease for both component particles according to the phyto-nanocarrier experimental preparation procedure [102].…”

Nitrate Removal Performance of Different Granular Adsorbents Using a Novel Fe-Exchanged Nanoporous Clinoptilolite

“…After the introduction of Fe into the clinoptilolite’s structure (Figure c), prominent peaks of clinoptilolite shifted negligibly to 9.8°, 22.30°, 26.45°, 28.12°, and 29.87°. Due to the formerly administrated investigations, the abovementioned phenomenon might be assigned to the cation exchange reaction in clinoptilolite . Notably, shifted peaks or the appearance of new peaks can be attributed to the presence of iron.…”

“…Due to the formerly administrated investigations, the abovementioned phenomenon might be assigned to the cation exchange reaction in clinoptilolite. 47 Notably, shifted peaks or the appearance of new peaks can be attributed to the presence of iron. Moreover, crystallinity is considered as a remarkable feature in correspondence with intensity; hence, the decrease in the intensity (Figure 5c) is justifiable by the poor crystallinity in Fe/Clin.…”