Insect morphology in the age of phylogenomics: innovative techniques and its future role in systematics

Abstract

A brief account of the history of insect morphology is given. Different techniques and analytical methods used in current projects on insect morphology and phylogeny and their optimized combined application are described. These include fixation, dissection, maceration, histology (microtome sectioning), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM), focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB/SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), bleaching, micro-computed tomography (μCT), computer-based three-dimensional reconstruction, focus stacking of digital images, geometric morphometrics and the storage of morphological metadata. The role of insect morphology in the "age of phylogenomics" is discussed.

Functional morphology and structural characteristics of wings of the ladybird beetle,Coccinella septempunctata(L.)

“…SEM has used more frequently because samples are easy to handle and resolution of the surface structure is greater (Friedrich et al, 2014). However, visualization of internal soft parts and detailed anatomical reconstructions with SEM is difficult (Kaya and Baran, 2015;Sun et al, 2009).…”

Classification and Biogeography of Neotropical True Bugs

“…At the same time, the availability of molecular data is increasing, as is the refi nement of morphology-driven studies with the diffusion of new approaches. New and improved technology for image capture and treatment, such as confocal microscopes and 3D-reconstructions by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microtomography, are making possible to revisit and investigate underexplored morphological characters (Friedrich et al 2014 ). The new challenge will be to integrate new molecular and morphological datasets enabling its combined analysis, as has been recently done by some researchers (Friedrich et al 2014 ).…”

Translucent cuticle and setiferous patches in Megaspilidae (Hymenoptera, Ceraphronoidea)

“…We also utilized histological methods; we used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to investigate the cuticle and underlying structures, and serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) to build three-dimensional representations of these structures. SBFSEM is a novel technology that has only recently been applied to studying arthropod physiology, but it is a promising approach for studying external and internal morphology (Büsse et al 2016;Friedrich et al 2014;Lipke et al 2014). This study comprises the first in-depth investigation of the translucent patches, setiferous patches and underlying structures within Ceraphronoidea.…”