Innate Immune Pathways in Atherosclerosis—From Signaling to Long-Term Epigenetic Reprogramming

Abstract

Innate immune pathways play a crucial role in the development of atherosclerosis, from sensing initial danger signals to the long-term reprogramming of immune cells. Despite the success of lipid-lowering therapy, anti-hypertensive medications, and other measures in reducing complications associated with atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death worldwide. Consequently, there is an urgent need to devise novel preventive and therapeutic strategies to alleviate the global burden of CVD. Extensive experimental research and epidemiological studies have demonstrated the dominant role of innate immune mechanisms in the progression of atherosclerosis. Recently, landmark trials including CANTOS, COLCOT, and LoDoCo2 have provided solid evidence demonstrating that targeting innate immune pathways can effectively reduce the risk of CVD. These groundbreaking trials mark a significant paradigm shift in the field and open new avenues for atheroprotective treatments. It is therefore crucial to comprehend the intricate interplay between innate immune pathways and atherosclerosis for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions. Additionally, unraveling the mechanisms underlying long-term reprogramming may offer novel strategies to reverse the pro-inflammatory phenotype of immune cells and restore immune homeostasis in atherosclerosis. In this review, we present an overview of the innate immune pathways implicated in atherosclerosis, with a specific focus on the signaling pathways driving chronic inflammation in atherosclerosis and the long-term reprogramming of immune cells within atherosclerotic plaque. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms governing these processes presents exciting opportunities for the development of a new class of immunotherapeutic approaches aimed at reducing inflammation and promoting plaque stability. By addressing these aspects, we can potentially revolutionize the management of atherosclerosis and its associated cardiovascular complications.

Effects of vitamin D signaling in cardiovascular disease: centrality of macrophage polarization

“…Network overlaps between these functions are shown in Table 2 . The results indicate that vitamin D's genomic signaling regulates protein–protein interactions involved in atherosclerosis, efferocytosis (B) ( 86 , 87 ), macro-autophagy (C) ( 88 ), macrophage autophagy (D) ( 89 , 90 ), macrophage polarization (E) ( 91 , 92 ), cellular senescence (F) ( 93 ), ER stress response (G) ( 94 ), tissue homeostasis (H) ( 95 ), innate immunity (I) ( 96 ). caveola-mediated endocytosis (J) ( 97 ), and apoptosis (K) ( 98 ).…”