Informal groupings as types of differentiated cooperation in EU foreign policy: the cases of Kosovo, Libya, and Syria

Abstract

Although informal groups of member states often steer EU foreign policy, existing scholarly literature does not offer an overarching theoretical approach to account for their causes and their different types. This article conceptualizes informal groupings and offers a theoretical approach that explains their occurrence in EU foreign policy. It claims that while disagreements among member states and the lack of EU capacity are the main causes of informal groupings, the combination of these two factors over time and across different policy issues determines the emergence of specific types of informal groupings in EU foreign policy. Indeed, evidence from Kosovo, Libya and Syria shows that different types of informal groups addressed various policy issues by replacing, complementing and/or Manuscript -with author details supporting corresponding EU policies. Nonetheless, as these groupings lack central guidance and accountability mechanisms, they are not a panacea for EU foreign policy.

Differentiated cooperation as the mode of governance in EU foreign policy

“…Certainly, such a method may underpin the emergence and different modes of DC (Siddi et al, 2022). Still, as mentioned above, on the one hand, DC may occur both in supranational and intergovernmental sectors, as well as across them (Amadio Viceré, 2023). On the other hand, DC may also manifest itself in the external dimension of EU governance, namely between EU institutions and member states and, non-EU actors.…”

“…If sub-groups of member states cooperate outside of the EU framework, their interactions cannot be merely conceived as an instance of cooperation. As a matter of law, in fact, member states shall ensure the unity of EU foreign affairs (Amadio Viceré, 2023). To this end, member states shall coordinate with other member states and with EU institutions.…”

“…Therefore, while DC may unfold in formally supranational areas, formally intergovernmental areas may witness the emergence of DI as well. For instance, it was an informal grouping of member states that steered EU humanitarian response to the Syrian crisis, generating an instance of DC in a formally supranational sector (Amadio Viceré, 2023). The formally intergovernmental CSDP, in turn, has witnessed the occurrence of DI in the industrial sector (Hoeffler, 2019).…”

“…In other words, they may respectively develop among EU member states and between EU member states and non-EU actors. As for internal DC, an informal group of member states acting within the Quint has been bridging the gap between the EU enlargement policy and EU CFSP in Kosovo (Amadio Viceré, 2023). The involvement of non-EU actors in the EU trade and CFSP within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy, in turn, provides a relevant example of external DC spanning across intergovernmental and supranational sectors.…”

“…The first four papers tackle the drivers, modes, and implications of DC within and across various sectors of EU foreign policy. The authors examine the emergence of informal groupings in the EU approach to conflicts and crisis management (Amadio Viceré, 2023); explore the structure of delegation from the members states to the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy/Vice-President of the European Commission and its implications for the agency of the post-holders with regard to informal groupings (Sus, 2023); discuss the only example of treaty-based formal differentiated cooperation in EU security and defense (Martill & Gebhard, 2023); and identify what drives political parties and governments of Nordic countries to support the participation of their countries in EU Battlegroups (Leruth, 2023). The following two papers complement the analysis by reflecting on the driving forces, modes, and implications of DC in multilateral settings.…”