Influence of rain on air‐sea gas exchange: Lessons from a model ocean

Ho, David T.; Zappa, Christopher J.; McGillis, Wade R.; Bliven, Larry F.; Ward, Brian; Dacey, John W. H.; Schlosser, Peter; Hendricks, M. B.

doi:10.1029/2003jc001806

Cited by 56 publications

(89 citation statements)

References 61 publications

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“…N 2 O and SF 6 were measured in 50 mL ground glass syringes via the headspace method (Ho et al, 2004). Approximately, 30 mL of ultra-high purity (UHP) nitrogen was added to each syringe before samples were equilibrated for 12 hours in a room temperature bath and shaken for 10 minutes to achieve solubility equilibrium (Wanninkhof et al, 1987).…”

Section: Gas Tracer Methods For Estimating Kmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Currents and convection cause enhanced gas exchange in the ice–water boundary layer

Loose¹,

Lovely²,

Schlosser³

et al. 2016

Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology

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A B S T R A C TThe presence of sea ice acts as a physical barrier for airÁsea exchange. On the other hand it creates additional turbulence due to current shear and convection during ice formation. We present results from a laboratory study that demonstrate how shear and convection in the iceÁocean boundary layer can lead to significant gas exchange. In the absence of wind, water currents beneath the ice of 0.23 m s(1 produced a gas transfer velocity (k) of 2.8 m d(1 , equivalent to k produced by a wind speed of 7 m s (1 over the open ocean. Convection caused by airÁsea heat exchange also increased k of as much as 131 % compared to k produced by current shear alone. When wind and currents were combined, k increased, up to 7.6 m d (1 , greater than k produced by wind or currents alone, but gas exchange forcing by wind produced mixed results in these experiments. As an aggregate, these experiments indicate that using a wind speed parametrisation to estimate k in the sea ice zone may underestimate k by ca. 50 % for wind speeds B8 m s

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Section: Gas Tracer Methods For Estimating Kmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…These processes include surf zone and riverine turbulence (Zappa et al, 2003), the convective oceanic mixed layer and rain on the water surface (Ho et al, 2004).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Currents and convection cause enhanced gas exchange in the ice–water boundary layer

Loose¹,

Lovely²,

Schlosser³

et al. 2016

Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology

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“…Enhancement in k w (660) is due mostly to increased near surface turbulence, whereas bubbles play a minor role (Ho et al 2000). Experiments in saltwater demonstrate that the relationship between rain and k w (660) is the same as in freshwater, but density stratification could inhibit vertical mixing and decrease the overall gas flux (Ho et al 2004;Zappa et al 2009). …”

Section: Rainmentioning

confidence: 97%

“…These studies began in the 1960s, where initial laboratory studies using O 2 invasion employed a rain simulators that had only 8-12 nozzles so only produced a few raindrops at a time, and only investigated a range of rain rates up to 17 mm h À1 (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 1964;Banks and Herrera 1977;Banks et al 1984). In the last two decades, systematic laboratory studies examining the full range of rain rates encountered in nature have quantified the effect of rain on gas exchange (Ho et al 1997;Takagaki and Komori 2007), the interaction between rain and wind , the mechanism behind the enhancement (Ho et al 2000), the effect in saltwater Ho et al (2004); Zappa et al (2009). Furthermore, some modeling studies have been conducted to examine the potential effect of rain on air-sea CO 2 exchange Turk et al 2010).…”

Section: Rainmentioning

confidence: 99%

Transfer Across the Air-Sea Interface

Garbe

Rutgersson

Boutin

et al. 2013

Springer Earth System Sciences

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The efficiency of transfer of gases and particles across the air-sea interface is controlled by several physical, biological and chemical processes in the atmosphere and water which are described here (including waves, large-and small-scale turbulence, bubbles, sea spray, rain and surface films). For a deeper understanding of relevant transport mechanisms, several models have been developed, ranging from conceptual models to numerical models. Most frequently the transfer is described by various functional dependencies of the wind speed, but more detailed descriptions need additional information. The study of gas transfer mechanisms uses a variety of experimental methods ranging from laboratory studies to carbon budgets, mass balance methods, micrometeorological techniques and thermographic techniques. Different methods resolve the transfer at different scales of time and space; this is important to take into account when comparing different results. Air-sea transfer is relevant in a wide range of applications, for example, local and regional fluxes, global models, remote sensing and computations of global inventories. The sensitivity of global models to the description of transfer velocity is limited; it is however likely that the formulations are more important when the resolution increases and other processes in models are improved. For global flux estimates using inventories or remote sensing products the accuracy of the transfer formulation as well as the accuracy of the wind field is crucial. IntroductionThe transfer of gases and particles across the air-sea interface depends not only on the concentration difference between the water and the air, but also on the efficiency of the transfer process. The efficiency of the transfer is controlled by complex interaction of a variety of processes in the air and in the water near the interface. Here we treat both gases and particles since the transfer, to some extent, is governed by similar mechanisms. Studies of transfer across the air-sea interface include a variety of methods and techniques ranging from laboratory studies, modeling and large-scale field studies. Various methods reach somewhat different conclusions, due to representation of different

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“…We have also not accounted for the effects of precipitation. Recently Ho et al (2004) demonstrated that short, intense rain events enhances gas exchange in the oceans. However, for much of the ocean for most of the time, such effects are expected to be smaller than those we highlight here.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Systematic errors in global air-sea CO<sub>2</sub> flux caused by temporal averaging of sea-level pressure

Kettle

Merchant

2005

Atmos. Chem. Phys.

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Abstract. Long-term temporal averaging of meteorological data, such as wind speed and air pressure, can cause large errors in air-sea carbon flux estimates. Other researchers have already shown that time averaging of wind speed data creates large errors in flux due to the non-linear dependence of the gas transfer velocity on wind speed (Bates and Merlivat, 2001). However, in general, wind speed is negatively correlated with air pressure, and a given fractional change in the pressure of dry air produces an equivalent fractional change in the atmospheric partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO 2air ). Thus low pressure systems cause a drop in pCO 2air , which together with the associated high winds, promotes outgassing/reduces uptake of CO 2 from the ocean. Here we quantify the errors in global carbon flux estimates caused by using monthly or climatological pressure data to calculate pCO 2air (and thus ignoring the covariance of wind and pressure) over the period 1990-1999, using two common parameterisations for gas transfer velocity. Results show that on average, compared with estimates made using 6 hourly pressure data, the global oceanic sink is systematically overestimated by 7% (W92) and 10% (WM99) when monthly mean pressure is used, and 9% (W92) and 12% (WM99) when climatological pressure is used.

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Influence of rain on air‐sea gas exchange: Lessons from a model ocean

Cited by 56 publications

References 61 publications

Currents and convection cause enhanced gas exchange in the ice–water boundary layer

Currents and convection cause enhanced gas exchange in the ice–water boundary layer

Transfer Across the Air-Sea Interface

Systematic errors in global air-sea CO<sub>2</sub> flux caused by temporal averaging of sea-level pressure

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Influence of rain on air‐sea gas exchange: Lessons from a model ocean

Cited by 56 publications

References 61 publications

Currents and convection cause enhanced gas exchange in the ice–water boundary layer

Currents and convection cause enhanced gas exchange in the ice–water boundary layer

Transfer Across the Air-Sea Interface

Systematic errors in global air-sea CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; flux caused by temporal averaging of sea-level pressure

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Product

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Systematic errors in global air-sea CO<sub>2</sub> flux caused by temporal averaging of sea-level pressure