Inflammatory Markers in Cancer Immunotherapy

Abstract

Chronic inflammation is considered a major risk factor for cancer formation. Inflammation within the tumor environment plays a role in its response to therapy, growth, and prognosis. Cancer associated inflammation is known to occur in the tumor microenvironment and in the systemic circulation, and is correlated with disease progression and prognosis in many cancers. Blood cells such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, platelets, and circulating proteins such as C-reactive protein, and interleukins, such as IL-6, have been associated with inflammatory responses, which contribute to tumorigenesis. Cancer has found ways to evade the immune response; a pathway that can attenuate the innate immune response is via blocking immune checkpoints. Development of monoclonal antibodies against inhibitory immune checkpoints such as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) have given rise to immunotherapy, which has shown remarkable responses in anti-tumor activity resulting in several U.S. Federal and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved checkpoint inhibitors. Various inflammatory markers and their prognostic and predictive implications in malignancies treated with immunotherapy will be discussed in this review.

Helicobacter pylori-Related Metabolic Parameters and Premalignant Gastric Mucosa Histological Lesions in Swiss Bariatric Patients

“…This process could induce alterations in the gastric mucosa and genetic changes, ultimately resulting in gastric oncogenesis [ 62 ]. Likewise, proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6, are related to IR in patients with malignancies including GC [ 63 ]; proinflammatory cytokines, such IL-6, have been related with inflammatory responses, which contribute to carcinogenesis [ 64 ]; the chronic inflammatory process may raise the incidence and mortality of malignancies in patients with T2DM [ 65 ]; and, both T2DM and Hp -I increase the risk of GC, accompanied by more severe gastric inflammatory process [ 66 ]. In addition, rises in levels of reactive oxygen species induced by T2DM are connected with mutational alterations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.…”

Real-world performance of blood-based proteomic profiling in first-line immunotherapy treatment in advanced stage non-small cell lung cancer

“…17 18 These factors have been shown to be correlated with a dysfunctional tumor immune response and poor prognosis in general and in the context of immunotherapy. [19][20][21][22] The INSIGHT (Clinical Effectiveness Assessment of VeriStrat® Testing and Validation of Immunotherapy Tests in NSCLC Subjects) study (NCT03289780) is an ongoing, observational registry trial, designed to validate that HIC test classifications stratify clinical outcomes for real-world patients receiving standard of care therapies, including immunotherapy. 23 Although extensively evaluated in patients receiving targeted therapy and chemotherapy-based regimens, HIC's clinical utility for patients treated with ICI has been demonstrated in only one previous study.…”

Low Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte Ratio Is the Potential Indicator of Worse Overall Survival in Patients with Renal Cell Carcinoma and Venous Tumor Thrombus

“…As a consequence, certain shifts in blood count may indicate the condition of tumor immune microenvironment, e.g., increased numbers of monocytes are thought to represent a high tumor burden [8]. Likewise, elevated neutrophil counts are indicative of tumor progression, and a high NLR has been established as a marker of poor prognosis in multiple human malignancies [9]. In cancer patients a drop in lymphocyte count can reduce anti-cancer immunity [9], while the elevated levels of lymphocytes are associated with a favorable prognosis [10].…”

“…Likewise, elevated neutrophil counts are indicative of tumor progression, and a high NLR has been established as a marker of poor prognosis in multiple human malignancies [9]. In cancer patients a drop in lymphocyte count can reduce anti-cancer immunity [9], while the elevated levels of lymphocytes are associated with a favorable prognosis [10].…”