Infectious Disease Risk Across the Growing Human-Non Human Primate Interface: A Review of the Evidence

Abstract

Most of the human pandemics reported to date can be classified as zoonoses. Among these, there is a long history of infectious diseases that have spread from non-human primates (NHP) to humans. For millennia, indigenous groups that depend on wildlife for their survival were exposed to the risk of NHP pathogens' transmission through animal hunting and wild meat consumption. Usually, exposure is of no consequence or is limited to mild infections. In rare situations, it can be more severe or even become a real public health concern. Since the emergence of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), nobody can ignore that an emerging infectious diseases (EID) might spread from NHP into the human population. In large parts of Central Africa and Asia, wildlife remains the primary source of meat and income for millions of people living in rural areas. However, in the past few decades the risk of exposure to an NHP pathogen has taken on a new dimension. Unprecedented breaking down of natural barriers between NHP and humans has increased exposure to health risks for a much larger population, including people living in urban areas. There are several reasons for this: (i) due to road development and massive destruction of ecosystems for agricultural needs, wildlife and humans come into contact more frequently; (ii) due to ecological awareness, many long distance travelers are in search of wildlife discovery, with a particular fascination for African great apes; (iii) due to the attraction for ancient temples and mystical practices, others travelers visit Asian places colonized by NHP. In each case, there is a risk of pathogen transmission through a bite or another route of infection. Beside the individual risk of contracting a pathogen, there is also the possibility of starting a new pandemic. This article reviews the known cases of NHP pathogens' transmission to humans whether they are hunters, travelers, ecotourists, veterinarians, or scientists working on NHP. Although pathogen transmission is supposed to be a rare outcome, Rabies virus, Herpes B virus, Monkeypox virus, Ebola virus, or Yellow fever virus infections are of greater concern and require quick countermeasures from public health professionals.

Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius): A Possible Threat for Humans and Livestock in North Africa and the Near and Middle East?

“…Finally, there is a public health concern linked to the risk of transmission to humans (324)(325)(326)(327). Dromedary camel infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis was reported in several countries (328)(329)(330)(331)(332)(333)(334)(335)(336)(337)(338)(339)(340)(341). Another mycobacterium, Mycobacterium avium subsp.…”

Adenovirus Infections in African Humans and Wild Non-Human Primates: Great Diversity and Cross-Species Transmission

“…NHPs are increasingly implicated as potential sources of emerging zoonotic diseases in humans [ 7 , 8 ]. Indigenous groups that depend on wildlife for survival were exposed to the risk of the transmission of NHP pathogens through hunting, consumption of bushmeat [ 9 ] and through other ways; for example, by sharing non-flowing water sources, fruits and plant sources that NHPs have used. Concerning adenoviruses, virologists have long wondered about the possibility that NHP adenoviruses may one day pose a risk to humans [ 10 ].…”

Epidemiologic Characteristics of Imported and Domestic Chikungunya Cases in Taiwan: A 13-Year Retrospective Study

“…The chikungunya virus is maintained in nature in both urban and sylvatic cycles involving mosquito vectors and human or vertebrate animal hosts [27]. A study indicated that the unprecedented destruction of natural barriers between nonhuman primates and humans has increased health risks for a large population, including people living in urban areas [28]. Additionally, the chikungunya virus is an RNA virus with a high mutation rate of up to one million times higher than that of their hosts, and these high rates are associated with enhanced virulence and evolvability, which are beneficial traits for viruses [29].…”