“…Antibiotics also perform a variety of physiological functions, including nutrient absorption and feed intake ( Abd El-Hack et al., 2022 ), energy and nitrogen retention ( Lee et al., 2023 ), metabolic functions like liver protein synthesis ( Miller & Singer, 2022 ), and so on. Despite having favorable effects antibiotics also exhibit some side effects for instance slowed feed transit times ( Wallace et al., 2023 ), decreased gut wall thickness and diameter ( Pothineni & Keller, 2023 ), reduced energy and vitamin synthesis in the gut ( Voland et al., 2022 ), and toxic ammonia production ( Li et al., 2022 ).…”